Tanzania is the third largest gold exporter in Africa, thanks in part to the liberalization of the mining sector which started in the early 1990s. Neoliberal mining reforms promised a win-win situation in which government, investors and local host communities would benefit through export earnings, profits, local employment, and corporate social responsibility initiatives (e.g., the building of schools and clinics). While the rising price of gold and foreign investments in mining activities have delivered on some of these promises, many residents in mining regions have not benefited socioeconomically. Worse still, their communities have unjustly borne the brunt of the environmental, social, and public-health costs associated with large-scale mining operations. This paper examines these injustices through research in Geita and Kahama, two of the most active gold mining areas of Tanzania. Drawing on Kuehn’s [1] taxonomy of environmental injustice, we detail the negative impacts of mining activities in these communities and describe how residents have developed strategies of resistance as means to obtain reparations. We then explore the political, financial, organizational, and social limitations on these resistance strategies and argue that the social movements associated with mining lack the political space necessary to affect significant changes to structure, quality, and impact of the industry in western Tanzania.
References
[1]
Kuehn, R.R. A taxonomy of environmental justice. Environ. Law Report. 2000, 30, 10681–10703.
[2]
United Republic of Tanzania. The Economic Survey 2009; The Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2010.
[3]
World Development Indicators; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
[4]
Emel, J.; Huber, M. A risky business: Mining, rent and the neoliberalization of “risk”. Geoforum 2008, 39, 1393–1407, doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2008.01.010.
[5]
Strategy for African Mining; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 1992.
[6]
Investment Climate Assessment: Improving Enterprise Performance and Growth in Tanzania; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
[7]
Kapelus, P. Mining CSR and the “community” case of Rio Tinto, Richards Bay and Mbonambi. J. Bus. Ethics 2002, 39, 275–296, doi:10.1023/A:1016570929359.
[8]
Alm？s, ？.R.; Kweyunga, C.; Manoko, M. Natal Dispersal and Social Investigation of Trace Metal Concentrations in Soil, Sediments and Waters in the Vicinity of “Geita Gold Mine” and “North Mara Gold Mine” in North West Tanzania, IPM-report, As, Norway, 2009.
[9]
Bitala, M.F. Evaluation of Heavy Metals Pollution in Soil and Plants Accrued from Gold Mining in Geita, Tanzania. Master’s Thesis, University of Dar-es-Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2007.
[10]
Nambiza, P.W. Whose development counts? Political ecology of displacement of Bulyanhulu mining community in Tanzania. Master’s Thesis, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway, 2007.
[11]
Jeje, B. Buhemba gold mines clash with farmers over water rights. The Guardian 2006.
[12]
IPPMedia. Intruders attempt to seize north Mara mine. The Guardian 2008.
[13]
Emel, J.; Makene, H.; Wangari, E. Problems with reporting and evaluating mining industry community development project: A case study from Tanzania reporting. Sustainability 2012, 4, 257–277, doi:10.3390/su4020257.
[14]
Ali, S.H. Mining, the Environment, and Indigenous Development Conflicts; The University of Arizona Press: Tucson, AZ, USA, 2003.
[15]
Bridge, G. Contested terrain: Mining and the environment. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2004, 29, 205–259, doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.28.011503.163434.
[16]
Boocock, C.N. Environmental impacts of foreign direct investment in the mining sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Proceedings of OECD Global Forum on international Investment Conferenceon Foreign Direct Investment and the Environment, Paris, France, 7–8 February 2002.
[17]
World Bank. Extractive Industries Review: Striking a Better Balance; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2003.
Ramos, H.; Cabalda, M.; Banaag, M. Tailings Dam Accidents and the Use of Chemicals in Mining: Issues, Policy Response and Lessons Learned from the Philippines; Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources: Perth, Australia, 2000.
[20]
WISE Uranium Project Web Page. Chronology of major tailings dam failures. Available online: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/mdaf.html (accessed on 20 August 2011).
[21]
Bullard, R.D. Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class and Environmental Quality; Westview Press: Boulder, CO, USA, 1994.
Byrne, J.; Martinez, C.; Glover, L. A brief on environmental justice. In Environmental Justice: Discourses in International Political Economy; Byrne, J., Martinez, C., Glover, L., Eds.; Transaction Publishers: New Brunswick, NJ, USA, 2002.
[24]
Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental equity: Reducing risk for all communities. In Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, Workgroup Reports Volumes 1 & 2; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1992.
[25]
Environmental Protection Agency Website. Environmental Justice. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice (accessed on 19 July 2009).
[26]
Martinez-Alier, J. Mining conflicts, environmental justice, and valuation. J. Hazard. Mater. 2001, 86, 153–170, doi:10.1016/S0304-3894(01)00252-7.
[27]
Pulido, L. Environmentalism and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest; The University of Arizona Press: Tucson, AZ, USA, 1996.
[28]
Schlosberg, D. Reconceiving environmental justice: Global movements and political theories. Environ. Polit. 2004, 13, 517–540, doi:10.1080/0964401042000229025.
[29]
Kaswan, A. Environmental justice: Bridging the gap between environmental laws and ‘justice’. Am. Univ. Law Rev. 1997, 47, 221–300.
[30]
Martinez-Alier, J. The Environmentalism of the Poor: A Study of Ecological Conflicts and Valuation; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK, 2002.
[31]
Manaster, K.A. Environmental Protection and Justice: Readings and Commentary on EnvironmentalLaw and Practice; Anderson Publishing Company: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 2000.
[32]
Foster, S. Justice from the ground up: Distributive inequities, grassroots resistance, and the transformative politics of the environmental justice movement. Calif. Law Rev. 1998, 86, 775–841, doi:10.2307/3481140.
[33]
Schroeder, R.; Martin, K.St.; Wilson, B.; Sen, D. Third world environmental justice. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2008, 21, 547–555, doi:10.1080/08941920802100721.
[34]
Bank of Tanzania. Economic and Operations Annual Report. An Investment Guide to Tanzania: Opportunities and Conditions; United Nations: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003.
[35]
LEAT Bulyanhulu gold mine. Available online: http://www.leattz.org/rapid-response (accessed on 16 December 2012).
[36]
Bryant, B. Environmental Justice: Issues, Policies, and Solutions; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1995.
[37]
Baregu, M. Conflict and collaboration in government-party relations in Tanzania. In Politics and Administration in East Africa; Oyugi, W., Ed.; East African Educational Publishers: Nairobi, Kenya, 1994; pp. 129–213.
[38]
Campbell, B. Factoring in governance is not enough. Mining codes in Africa, policy reform and corporate responsibility. Miner. Energy Raw Mater. Rep. 2003, 18, 2–13, doi:10.1080/14041040310019129.
[39]
Ferguson, J. Anti-Politics Machine: Development, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho; University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 1994.
[40]
Panitchi, L. Rethinking the role of the state. In Globalization: Critical reflections; Mittelman, J., Ed.; Lynne Rienner Publishers: Boulder, CO, USA, 1996.
[41]
From Crisis to Sustainable Growth: A Long Term Perspective Study; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 1989.
[42]
Emel, J.; Huber, M.; Makene, M. Extracting sovereignty: Capital, territory, and gold mining in Tanzania. Polit. Geogr. 2011, 30, 70–79, doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2010.12.007.
[43]
Pegg, S. Poverty Reduction or Poverty Exacerbation?World Bank Group Support for Extractive Industries in Africa; Oxfam America: Boston, MA, USA, 2003.
[44]
Lissu, T.A. In gold we trust: The political economy of law, human rights and the environment in tanzania’s mining industry. Law Soc. Justice Glob. Dev. J. 2001, 2, 1–5.
[45]
Curtis, M.; Lissu, T. A Golden Opportunity? How Tanzania is Failing to Benefit from Gold Mining; Christian Council of Tanzania, National Council of Muslims: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2008.
[46]
Kisembo, P. MP queries new mining pact. The Guardian 2007.
[47]
Emel, J.; Makene, M. Personal interview.
[48]
Emel, J.; Makene, M. Focus group interview.
[49]
Emel, J.; Makene, M. Personal interview.
[50]
Bene, C.; Merten, S. Women and fish-for-sex: Transactional sex, HIV/AIDS and gender in African fisheries. World Dev. 2008, 36, 875–899, doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.05.010.
[51]
Clift, S.; Anemona, A.; Watson-Jones, D.; Kanga, Z.; Ndeki, L.; Changalucha, J.; Gavyole, A.; Ross, D.A. Variations of hiv and sti prevalences within communities neighbouring new goldmines in Tanzania: Importance for intervention design. Sex. Transm. Infect. 2003, 79, 307–312, doi:10.1136/sti.79.4.307.
[52]
The Citizen Reporter, Barrick to probe abuse allegations. The Citizen 2011.
[53]
Mwalongo, R. Nyakabale: Where survival relies on one’s running speed. Ippmedia 2011.
[54]
Warhurst, A. Mining and the Environment: The Case Studies from the Americas; International Development Research Centre: Ottawa, Canada, 1999.
[55]
Bebbington, A.; Bury, J.; Humphreys-Bebbington, D.; Lingan, J.; Munoz, J.P.; Scurrah, M. Mining and social movements: Struggles over livelihood and rural territorial development in the Andes. World Dev. 2007, 36, 2888–2905.
[56]
Scott, J. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance; Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, USA, 1985.
[57]
Kitula, A.G.N. The environmental and socio-economic impacts of mining on local livelihoods in Tanzania: A case study of geita district. J. Clean. Prod. 2006, 14, 405–414, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.01.012.
[58]
Yeager, R. Tanzania: An African Experimentation; Westview Press: Boulder, CO, USA, 1989.
[59]
Lawi, Y.Q. Tanzania’s operation vijiji and local ecological consciousness: The case of eastern Iraqwland, 1974–1976. J. Afr. Hist. 2007, 48, 69–93, doi:10.1017/S0021853707002526.
[60]
Coulson, A. Tanzania, a Political Economy; Clarendon Press: Oxford, UK, 1982.
[61]
Williams, D. State coercion against peasant farmers: The Tanzanian case. J. Leg. Plur. 1982, 20, 95–127.
[62]
Shivji, I.; Tenga, R. Ujamaa in court. Afr. Events 1985, 1, 18–20.
[63]
Peluso, N.; Watts, M.J. Violent Environments; Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY, USA, 2001.
[64]
Lane, C.R. Alienation of Barabaig Pasture Land: Policy Implications for Pastoral Development in Tanzania; IIED: London, UK, 1991.
[65]
Lane, C. The Barabaig/NAFCO Conflict in Tanzania: On Whose Terms Can It Be Resolved?; International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences: Uppsala, Sweden, 1993.
