Breastfeeding is known to benefit both the mother’s and the child’s health. Our aim was to test the interactive effects between estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) rs2234693 and breastfeeding when predicting the child’s later depression in adulthood. A sample of 1209 boys and girls from the Young Finns Study were followed from childhood over 27 years up to age 30–45 years. Adulthood depressive symptoms were self-reported by the participants using the Beck Depression Inventory. Breastfeeding as well as several possibly confounding factors was reported by the parents in childhood or adolescence. Breastfeeding tended to predict lower adult depression, while ESR1 rs2234693 was not associated with depression. A significant interaction between breastfeeding and ESR1 was found to predict participants’ depression ( ) so that C/C genotype carriers who had not been breastfed had higher risk of depression than T-allele carriers (40.5% versus 13.0%) while there were no genotypic differences among those who had been breastfed. In sex-specific analysis, this interaction was evident only among women. We conclude that child’s genes and maternal behavior may interact in the development of child’s adult depression so that breastfeeding may buffer the inherited depression risk possibly associated with the C/C genotype of the ESR1 gene. 1. Introduction Depression is a major mental health problem in western countries, affecting working-age young adults in particular [1]. The etiology of depression is complex and involves genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and social factors. Furthermore, recent research has demonstrated that adult vulnerability to depression may have its origins already in early childhood [2], which emphasizes the value of life-course studies of depression. A large research literature has investigated the potential role of maternal behavior in the development of children’s mental and behavioral problems. In particular, breastfeeding has been shown to have beneficial effects for children’s physical health and cognitive development [3–5]. Emerging evidence suggests that breastfeeding might also have favorable effects on children’s mental health. In a study on 5-year-olds, breastfeeding duration was associated with lower prevalence of children’s mental health problems [6]. Other studies demonstrated that children who had not been breastfed in infancy had a higher risk for clinical depression in early adulthood [7] and hostility in adulthood [8]. However, genetic background may determine, in part, the sensitivity and responsiveness of individuals to environmental
References
[1]
C. J. L. Murray and A. D. Lopez, “Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990–2020: global Burden of Disease Study,” The Lancet, vol. 349, no. 9064, pp. 1498–1504, 1997.
[2]
R. L. Repetti, S. E. Taylor, and T. E. Seeman, “Risky families: family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 128, no. 2, pp. 330–366, 2002.
[3]
S. Ip, M. Chung, G. Raman et al., “Breastfeeding and maternal and infant health outcomes in developed countries,” Evidence Report, no. 153, pp. 1–186, 2007.
[4]
M. S. Kramer, F. Aboud, E. Mironova et al., “Breastfeeding and child cognitive development: new evidence from a large randomized trial,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 65, no. 5, pp. 578–584, 2008.
[5]
E. B. Isaacs, B. R. Fischl, B. T. Quinn, W. K. Chong, D. G. Gadian, and A. Lucas, “Impact of breast milk on intelligence quotient, brain size, and white matter development,” Pediatric Research, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 357–362, 2010.
[6]
M. Robinson, W. H. Oddy, J. Li et al., “Pre- and postnatal influences on preschool mental health: a large-scale cohort study,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 49, no. 10, pp. 1118–1128, 2008.
[7]
L. Batstra, J. Neeleman, C. Elsinga, and M. Hadders-Algra, “Psychiatric morbidity is related to a chain of prenatal and perinatal adversities,” Early Human Development, vol. 82, no. 11, pp. 721–729, 2006.
[8]
P. Merjonen, M. Jokela, L. Pulkki-R？back et al., “Breastfeeding and offspring hostility in adulthood,” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, vol. 80, pp. 371–373, 2011.
[9]
A. Caspi, B. Williams, J. Kim-Cohen et al., “Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 104, no. 47, pp. 18860–18865, 2007.
[10]
T. Kishi, M. Ikeda, T. Kitajima et al., “A functional polymorphism in estrogen receptor alpha gene is associated with Japanese methamphetamine induced psychosis,” Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 895–898, 2009.
[11]
W. R. Perlman, E. Tomaskovic-Crook, D. M. Montague et al., “Alteration in estrogen receptor α mRNA levels in frontal cortex and hippocampus of patients with major mental illness,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 58, no. 10, pp. 812–824, 2005.
[12]
U. Halbreich and L. S. Kahn, “Role of estrogen in the aetiology and treatment of mood disorders,” CNS Drugs, vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 797–817, 2001.
[13]
E. E. Sundermann, P. M. Maki, and J. R. Bishop, “A review of estrogen receptor α gene (ESR1) polymorphisms, mood, and cognition,” Menopause, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 874–886, 2010.
[14]
J. Ryan, J. Scali, I. Carrière et al., “Estrogen receptor alpha gene variants and major depressive episodes,” Journal of Affective Disorders, vol. 136, pp. 1222–1226, 2012.
[15]
S. J. Tsai, Y. C. Wang, C. J. Hong, and H. J. Chiu, “Association study of oestrogen receptor α gene polymorphism and suicidal behaviours in major depressive disorder,” Psychiatric Genetics, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 19–22, 2003.
[16]
C. S. Weickert, A. L. Miranda-Angulo, J. Wong et al., “Variants in the estrogen receptor alpha gene and its mRNA contribute to risk for schizophrenia,” Human Molecular Genetics, vol. 17, no. 15, pp. 2293–2309, 2008.
[17]
F. A. Champagne, I. C. G. Weaver, J. Diorio, S. Sharma, and M. J. Meaney, “Natural variations in maternal care are associated with estrogen receptor α expression and estrogen sensitivity in the medial preoptic area,” Endocrinology, vol. 144, no. 11, pp. 4720–4724, 2003.
[18]
F. A. Champagne, I. C. G. Weaver, J. Diorio, S. Dymov, M. Szyf, and M. J. Meaney, “Maternal care associated with methylation of the estrogen receptor-α1b promoter and estrogen receptor-α expression in the medial preoptic area of female offspring,” Endocrinology, vol. 147, no. 6, pp. 2909–2915, 2006.
[19]
K. M. Kramer, S. Yoshida, E. Papademetriou, and B. S. Cushing, “The organizational effects of oxytocin on the central expression of estrogen receptor α and oxytocin in adulthood,” BMC Neuroscience, vol. 8, article 71, 2007.
[20]
H. K. ？kerblom, M. Uhari, E. Pesonen et al., “Cardiovascular risk in young Finns,” Annals of Medicine, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 35–39, 1991.
[21]
O. T. Raitakari, M. Juonala, T. R？nnemaa et al., “Cohort profile: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study,” International Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1220–1226, 2008.
[22]
A. T. Beck, R. A. Steer, and G. K. Brown, Depression Inventory, 2nd edition, 2009, http://cps.nova.edu/~cpphelp/BDI2.html.
[23]
M. Jokela, L. Keltikangas-J？rvinen, M. Kivim？ki et al., “Serotonin receptor 2A gene and the influence of childhood maternal nurturance on adulthood depressive symptoms,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 356–360, 2007.
[24]
M. Jokela, T. Lehtim？ki, and L. Keltikangas-J？rvinen, “The influence of urban/rural residency on depressive symptoms is moderated by the serotonin receptor 2A gene,” American Journal of Medical Genetics B, vol. 144, no. 7, pp. 918–922, 2007.
[25]
M. Elovainio, L. Keltikangas-J？rvinen, M. Kivim？ki et al., “Depressive symptoms and carotid artery intima-media thickness in young adults: the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns study,” Psychosomatic Medicine, vol. 67, pp. 561–567, 2005.
[26]
M. Jokela, K. R？ikk？nen, T. Lehtim？ki, R. Rontu, and L. Keltikangas-J？rvinen, “Tryptophan hydroxylase 1 gene (TPH1) moderates the influence of social support on depressive symptoms in adults,” Journal of Affective Disorders, vol. 100, no. 1-3, pp. 191–197, 2007.
[27]
J. D. Kark, G. Troya, and Y. Friedlander, “Validity of maternal reporting of breast feeding history and the association with blood lipids in 17 year olds in Jerusalem,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 218–225, 1984.
[28]
M. J. J？rvisalo, N. Hutri-K？h？nen, M. Juonala et al., “Breast feeding in infancy and arterial endothelial function later in life. The cardiovascular risk in Young Finns Study,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 63, no. 5, pp. 640–645, 2009.
[29]
K. J. Livak, “Allelic discrimination using fluorogenic probes and the 5' nuclease assay,” Genetic Analysis, vol. 14, no. 5-6, pp. 143–149, 1999.
[30]
J. R. Marszalek and H. F. Lodish, “Docosahexaenoic acid, fatty acid-interacting proteins, and neuronal function: breastmilk and fish are good for you,” Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, vol. 21, pp. 633–657, 2005.
[31]
S. F. Virden, “The relationship between infant feeding method and maternal role adjustment,” Journal of Nurse-Midwifery, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 31–35, 1988.
[32]
J. H. Kennell and M. H. Klaus, “Bonding: recent observations that alter perinatal care,” Pediatrics in Review, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 4–12, 1998.
[33]
C. M. Corter and A. S. Fleming, Psychobiology of Maternal Behavior in Human Beings, 1995.
[34]
K. M. Robson and R. Kumar, “Delayed onset of maternal affection after childbirth,” British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 136, no. 4, pp. 347–353, 1980.
[35]
K. Bystrova, V. Ivanova, M. Edhborg et al., “Early contact versus separation: effects on mother-infant interaction one year later,” Birth, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 97–109, 2009.
[36]
M. Klaus, “Mother and infant: early emotional ties,” Pediatrics, vol. 102, no. 5, pp. 1244–1246, 1998.
[37]
K. Uvn？s-Moberg and M. Eriksson, “Breastfeeding: physiological, endocrine and behavioural adaptations caused by oxytocin and local neurogenic activity in the nipple and mammary gland,” Acta Paediatrica, vol. 85, no. 5, pp. 525–530, 1996.
[38]
M. Febo, M. Numan, and C. F. Ferris, “Functional magnetic resonance imaging shows oxytocin activates brain regions associated with mother-pup bonding during suckling,” Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 25, no. 50, pp. 11637–11644, 2005.
[39]
A. L. Von Knorring, A. S？derberg, L. Austin, and K. Uvn？s-Moberg, “Massage decreases aggression in preschool children: a long-term study,” Acta Paediatrica, vol. 97, no. 9, pp. 1265–1269, 2008.
[40]
J. Mill, E. Kiss, I. Baji et al., “Association study of the estrogen receptor alpha gene (ESR1) and childhood-onset mood disorders,” American Journal of Medical Genetics B, vol. 147, no. 7, pp. 1323–1326, 2008.
[41]
O. G. Falceto, E. R. J. Giugliani, and C. L. C. Fernandes, “Influence of parental mental health on early termination of breast-feeding: a case-control study,” Journal of the American Board of Family Practice, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 173–183, 2004.
[42]
T. G. Fairlie, M. W. Gillman, and J. Rich-Edwards, “High pregnancy-related anxiety and prenatal depressive symptoms as predictors of intention to breastfeed and breastfeeding initiation,” Journal of Women's Health, vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 945–953, 2009.
