Phosphorus underpins the world’s food systems by ensuring soil fertility, maximising crop yields, supporting farmer livelihoods and ultimately food security. Yet increasing concerns around long-term availability and accessibility of the world’s main source of phosphorus—phosphate rock, means there is a need to investigate sustainable measures to buffer the world’s food systems against the long and short-term impacts of global phosphorus scarcity. While the timeline of phosphorus scarcity is contested, there is consensus that more efficient use and recycling of phosphorus is required. While the agricultural sector will be crucial in achieving this, sustainable phosphorus measures in sectors upstream and downstream of agriculture from mine to fork will also need to be addressed. This paper presents a comprehensive classification of all potential phosphorus supply- and demand-side measures to meet long-term phosphorus needs for food production. Examples range from increasing efficiency in the agricultural and mining sector, to technologies for recovering phosphorus from urine and food waste. Such measures are often undertaken in isolation from one another rather than linked in an integrated strategy. This integrated approach will enable scientists and policy-makers to take a systematic approach when identifying potential sustainable phosphorus measures. If a systematic approach is not taken, there is a risk of inappropriate investment in research and implementation of technologies and that will not ultimately ensure sufficient access to phosphorus to produce food in the future. The paper concludes by introducing a framework to assess and compare sustainable phosphorus measures and to determine the least cost options in a given context.
References
[1]
Johnston, A.E. Soil and Plant Phosphate; International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA): Paris, France, 2000.
[2]
IFPRI. Green Revolution: Curse or Blessing?; International Food Policy Research Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2002.
[3]
Cordell, D.; Drangert, J.-O.; White, S. The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2009, 19, 292–305, doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.10.009.
[4]
Cordell, D.; White, S.; Lindstr？m, T. Peak phosphorus: The crunch time for humanity? Sustain. Rev. 2011, 2, 1.
[5]
Smit, A.L.; Bindraban, P.S.; Schr？der, J.J.; Conijn, J.G.; van der Meer, H.G. Phosphorus in Agriculture: Global Resources, Trends and Developments; Technical Report to the Steering Committee Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2009.
[6]
Cordell, D.; White, S. Peak phosphorus: Clarifying the key issues of a vigorous debate about long-term phosphorus security. Sustainability 2011, 3, 2027–2049, doi:10.3390/su3102027.
[7]
Van Vuuren, D.P.; Bouwman, A.F.; Beusen, A.H.W. Phosphorus demand for the 1970-2100 period: A scenario analysis of resource depletion. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2010, 20, 428–439, doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.004.
[8]
Van Kauwenbergh, S. World Phosphate Reserves and Resources; International Fertilizer Development Centre (IFDC): Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
[9]
Bekunda, M.; Cordell, D.; Corman, J.; Rosemarin, A.; Salcedo, I.; Syers, K.; Lougheed, T. Phosphorus & Food Production, UNEP Yearbook: Emerging Issues in Our Global Environment,2011; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Paris, France, 2011. Available online: http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2011 (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[10]
World Bank. Commodity Price Data (Pink Sheet), Prospects for the Global Economy; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. Available online: http://go.worldbank.org/5AT3JHWYU0 (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[11]
Cordell, D. The Story of Phosphorus: Sustainability Implications of Global Phosphorus Scarcity for Food Security. Ph.D. Thesis, Link？ping University, Link？ping, Sweden, 2010.
[12]
Kochian, L.V. Rooting for more phosphorus. Nature 2012, 488, 466–467, doi:10.1038/488466a.
[13]
Jasinski, S.M. Phosphate Rock, Mineral Commodity Summaries; US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2012.
[14]
Gilbert, N. The disappearing nutrient. Nature 2009, 461, 716–718.
[15]
Childers, D.L.; Corman, J.; Edwards, M.; Elser, J.J. Sustainability challenges of phosphorus and food: Solutions from closing the human phosphorus cycle. BioScience 2011, 61, 117–124, doi:10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.6.
[16]
Smil, V. Phosphorus: Global Transfers. In Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change 3 “Causes and Consequences of Global Environmental Change”; Douglas, I., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd: London, UK, 2002; pp. 536–542.
[17]
Schr？der, J.J.; Cordell, D.; Smit, A.L.; Rosemarin, A. Sustainable Use of Phosphorus; Technical Report Report 357 for Plant Research International; Wageningen University and Research Centre: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2010.
[18]
Syers, K.; Johnston, A.E.; Curtin, D. Efficiency of Soil and Fertilizer Phosphorus Use: Reconciling Changing Concepts of Soils Phosphorus Behaviour with Agronomic Information; FAO Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Bulletin 18: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2008.
[19]
Von Weizsacker, E.U. Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use—A Report to the Club of Rome; Earthscan: London, UK, 1998.
[20]
Dunstan, C.; Jane, D.; Langham, E.; Boronyak, L.; Rutovitz, J. Institutional Barriers to Intelligent Grid; Working Paper 4.1 for Institute for Sustainable Futures; University of Technology Sydney: Sydney, Australia, 2011. Available online: http://igrid.net.au/resources/index.html#project4 (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[21]
Cordell, D.; Neset, T.-S.S.; White, S.; Drangert, J.-O. Preferred future phosphorus scenarios: A framework for meeting long-term phosphorus needs for global food demand. In. In Proceedings of International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater Streams Vancouver, Vancouver, Canada, 10–13 May 2009; Mavinic, D., Ashley, K., Koch, F., Eds.; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2009.
[22]
Cordell, D.; Jackson, M.; White, S. Phosphorus flows through the australian food system: Identifying intervention points as a roadmap to phosphorus security. Environ. Sci. Policy 2013. in press.
[23]
Edwards, M. Green Algae Strategy: End Oil Imports and Engineer Sustainable Food and Fuel; Green Independence: Tempe, AZ, USA, 2008.
[24]
Cordell, D.; Rosemarin, A.; Schr？der, J.J.; Smit, A.L. Towards global phosphorus security: A systems framework for phosphorus recovery and reuse options. Chemosphere 2011, 84, 747–758, doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.02.032.
[25]
WHO/FAO. Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases: Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation; Technical Report Series 916 for WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
[26]
Prud’Homme, M. World phosphate rock flows, losses and uses. In Proceedings of Phosphates 2010 International Conference, Brussels, Begium, 22–24 March 2010; International Fertiliser Industry Association: Brussels, Belgium, 2010.
[27]
Pellerin, S. Designing Phosphorus Cycle at Country Scale. Presented at European Scientific workshop, Bordeaux, France, 5-6 July; 2011. Available online: http://www.bordeaux-aquitaine.inra.fr/tcem_eng/seminaires_et_colloques/colloques/designing_phosphorus_cycle_at_country_scale (accessed on Day Month Year).
[28]
Neset, T.-S.S.; Cordell, D. Global phosphorus scarcity: Identifying synergies for a sustainable future. Sci. Food Agric. 2012, 92, 2–6, doi:10.1002/jsfa.4650.
[29]
UNEP. Environmental Aspects of Phosphate and Potash Mining; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA): Paris, France, 2001.
[30]
Cordell, D.; Neset, T.-S.S.; Prior, T. The phosphorus mass balance: Identifying “hotspots” in the food system as a roadmap to phosphorus security. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2012, 23, 839–845, doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2012.03.010.
[31]
Jasinski, S.M. Phosphate Rock, Mineral Commodity Summaries; US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2009. Available online: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/mcs-2009-phosp.pdf (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[32]
Jung, A. Phosphates Fertilizer Outlook, British Sulphur Consultants. In Proceedings of Phosphates 2010 International Conference, Brussels, Belgium, 22–24 March 2010.
[33]
Drummond, A. Minemakers: Targeting Phosphate Production from Two Continents. In Proceedings of Phosphates 2010 International Conference, Brussels, Belgium, 22–24 March 2010.
[34]
Corell, H. Letter Dated 29 January 2002 from the Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, the Legal Counsel, Addressed to the President of the Security Council. 2002.
[35]
Smith, J.J.P. The plundering of the Sahara: Corporate Criminal and Civil Liability for the Taking of Natural Resources from Western Sahara. 2011. Available online: http://www.arso.org/PlunderingoftheaharaSmith.pdf (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[36]
Hagen, E. The Role of Natural Resources in the Western Sahara Conflict, and the Interests Involved. In Proceedings of International Conference on Multilateralism and International Law, with Western Sahara as a Case Study, Pretoria, South Africa, 4–5 December 2008.
[37]
Wissa, A.E.Z. Phosphogypsum Disposal and the Environment; Ardaman & Associates, Inc.: Orlando, FL, USA, 2003. Available online: http://www.fipr.state.fl.us/pondwatercd/phosphogypsum_disposal.htm (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[38]
IPGWG. Guide Principles for Safe, Sustainable Uses of Phosphogypsum; International Phosphogypsum Working Group (IPGWG): Marrakech, Morocco, 2010.
[39]
EU Parliament Resolution on a Resource-Efficient Europe. EU Web site. 2012. Available online: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/plenary/en/texts-adopted.html (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[40]
IFA. Fertilizer Best Management Practices: General Principles, Strategy for Their Adpotion and Voluntary Initatives vs. Regulations; International Fertilizer Industry Association: Paris, France, 2007.
[41]
FIFA. Fertcare Handbook; 2006.
[42]
Smaling, E.; Toure, M.; Ridder, N.D.; Sanginga, N.; Breman, H. Fertilizer Use and the Environment in Africa: Friends or Foes? In Proceedings of the African Fertilizer Summit, Abuja, Nigeria, 9–13 June 2006.
[43]
Marion Dumas, E.F.; Scholz, R.W. Modeling biogeochemical processes of phosphorus for global food supply. Chemosphere 2011, 84, 798–805.
[44]
Schr？der, J.J.; Smit, A.L.; Cordell, D.; Rosemarin, A. Improved phosphorus use efficiency in agriculture: A key requirement for its sustainable use. Chemosphere 2011, 84, 822–831, doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.01.065.
[45]
Smaling, E.M.A.; Nandwa, S.M.; Janssen, B.H. Soil fertility in africa is at stake. In Replenishing Soil Fertility in Africa; Buresh, R.J., Sanchez, P.A., Calhoun, F., Eds.; Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) and American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA, 1997.
[46]
IFA Data. International Fertilizer Industry Association Web site. 2009. Available online: http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/ifadata/search (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[47]
FAO. Plant Nutrition for Food Security: A Guide for Integrated Nutrient Management; FAO Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Bulletin 16 for Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2006.
[48]
FAO. Soaring Food Prices: Facts, Perspectives, Impacts and Actions Required. In Proceedings of High-level Conference on World Food Security: The Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy; Rome, Italy: 3-5 June 2008.
[49]
IFA. The Global “4R” Nutrient Stewardship Framework—Developing Fertilizer Best Management Practices for Delivering Economic, Social and Environmental Benefits; Technical Report by the IFA Task Force on Fertilizer Best Management Practices, International Fertilizer Industry Association: Paris, France, 2009.
[50]
FAO. Organic Agriculture and Food Availability. In Proceedings of International Conference on Organic Agriculture and Food Security, Rome, Italy, 3–5 May 2007; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2007.
[51]
Holmgren, D. Permaculture: Principles and Pathways beyond Sustainability; Holmgren Design Services: Hepburn, Australia, 2003.
J？nsson, H.; Stintzing, A.R.; Vinner？s, B.; Salomon, E. Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production; Stockholm Environment Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2004.
[54]
Precision Agriculture. Variable Rate Applications. Precision Agriculture Web site. 2012. Available online: http://www.precisionagriculture.com.au/variable-rate-applications.php (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[55]
Richardson, A.E.; Hocking, P.J.; Simpson, R.J.; George, T.S. Plant mechanisms to optimise access to soil phosphorus. Crop Pasture Sci. 2009, 60, 124–143, doi:10.1071/CP07125.
[56]
Gamuyao, R.; Chin, J.H.; Pariasca-Tanaka, J.; Pesaresi, P.; Catausan, S.; Dalid, C.; Slamet-Loedin, I.; Tecson-Mendoza, E.M.; Wissuwa, M.; Heuer, S. The protein kinase Pstol1 from traditional riceconfers tolerance of phosphorus deficiency. Nature 2012, 488, 535–541.
[57]
Cornish, P. Research directions: Improving plant uptake of soil phosphorus, and reducing dependency on input of phosphorus fertiliser. Crop Pasture Sci. 2009, 60, 190–196, doi:10.1071/CP08920.
[58]
Simpson, R.; Oberson, A.; Culvenor, R.A.; Ryan, M.; Veneklaas, E.; Lambers, H.; Lynch, J.; Ryan, P.; Delhaize, E.; Smith, A.; et al. Strategies and agronomic interventions to improve the phosphorus-use efficiency of farming systems. Plant Soil 2011, 349, 89–120, doi:10.1007/s11104-011-0880-1.
[59]
Weaver, D.M.; Wong, M.T.F. Scope to improve phosphorus (P) management and balance efficiency of crop and pasture soils with contrasting p status and buffering indices. Plant Soil 2011, 349, 37–54, doi:10.1007/s11104-011-0996-3.
[60]
McLaughlin, M.J.; McBeath, T.M.; Smernik, R.; Stacey, S.P.; Ajiboye, B.; Guppy, C. The chemical nature of P-accumulation in agricultural soils—Implications for fertiliser management and design: An Australian perspective. Plant Soil 2011, 349, 69–87.
[61]
McIvor, J.G.; Guppy, C.; Probert, M.E. Phosphorus requirements of tropical grazing systems: The Northern Australian experience. Plant Soil 2011, 349, 55–67, doi:10.1007/s11104-011-0906-8.
[62]
Smaling, E.M.A.; Fresco, L.O.; de Jager, A. Classifying, monitoring and improving soil nutrient stocks and flows in african agriculture. AMBIO 1996, 25, 492–496.
[63]
Nierenberg, D. Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry; Technical Report No. 171 for Worldwatch Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
[64]
FAO. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options; UN Food & Agricultural Organisation: Rome, Italy, 2006.
[65]
Afinah, S.; Yazid, A.M.; Anis Shobririn, M.H.; Shuhaimi, M. Phytase: Application in food industry: Review article. Int. Food Res. J. 2010, 17, 13–21.
[66]
Forsberg, C.W.; Phillips, J.P.; Golovan, S.P.; Fan, M.Z.; Meidinger, R.G.; Ajakaiye, A.; Hilborn, D.; Hacker, R.R. The enviropig physiology, performance, and contribution to nutrient management advances in a regulated environment: The leading edge of change in the pork industry. J. Anim. Sci. 2003, 8, 68–77.
Fealy, R.; Schr？der, J.J. Assesssment of Manure Transport Distances and Their Impact on Economic and Energy Cost; International Fertiliser Society: York, UK, 2008.
[69]
RegenAg & MasHummus. How to Make Soluble Phosphorus. RegenAg Web site. 2012. Available online: http://regenag.com/web/ (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[70]
Lundqvist, J.; de Fraiture, C.; Molden, D. Saving Water: From Field to Fork—Curbing Losses and Wastage in the Food Chain, SIWI Policy Brief; Stockholm International Water Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2008.
[71]
Smil, V. Feeding the World: A Challenge for the 21st Century; The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2000.
[72]
WRAP. The Food We Waste; Technical Report version 2 for Waste & Resources Action Programme: Banbury, UK, 2008.
[73]
Zero Waste Australia. From Paddock to Plate, from Plate to Paddock. Senate Inquiry into the Management of Australia’s Waste Streams Web site. 2008. Available online: http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate_Committees?url=eca_ctte/completed_inquiries/2008-10/aust_waste_streams/submissions/sublist.htm (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[74]
FAO. Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 1999.
[75]
Baker, D.; Fear, J.; Denniss, R. What a Waste: An Analysis of Household Expenditure on Food; The Australia Institute: City, Australia, 2009.
[76]
Love Food Hate Waste Web site. Available online: http://www.lovefoodhatewaste.com (accessed on 14 January 2013).
[77]
Australia NSW Government Web site. Available online: http://www.lovefoodhatewaste.nsw.gov.au (accessed on 14 January 2013).
[78]
Watson, E. Is Phosphorus the New Trans Fat? FNCE, 15 October 2012. Available online: http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Science/FNCE-hot-topic-Is-phosphorus-the-new-trans-fat (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[79]
FAO. More People than Ever Are Victims of Hunger; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2009.
[80]
WHO. Obesity and Overweight, Fact Sheet Number 311; World Health Organisation Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[81]
De Fraiture, C. Future Water Requirements for Food—Three Scenarios, International Water Management Institute (IWMI). In Presented at SIWI Seminar: Water for Food, Bio-fuels or Ecosystems, Stockholm, Sweden, 12–18 August 2007.
[82]
WWF. Living Planet Report; World Wide Fund For Nature: Cambridge, UK, 2004. Available online: http:/..panda.org/downloads/lpr2004.pdf (accessed on 21 January 2013).
[83]
Smil, V. Policy for Improved Efficiency in the Food Chain. In Presented at SIWI Seminar: Water for Food, Bio-fuels or Ecosystems, Stockholm, Sweden, 12–18 August 2007.
FAO. The State of Food Security in the World, Monitoring Progress towards the World Food Summit and Millennium Development Goals; Food and Agricultural Organisation: Rome, Italy, 2004.
[86]
Narayanan, R. Food for though: Perspectives from an asian producer. In Proceedings of Phosphates 2010 International Conference, Brussels, Begium, 22–24 March 2010; Aditya Birla Chemicals: Brussels, Belgium, 2010.
[87]
Neset, T.-S.S.; Andersson, L. Environmental Impact of Food Production and Consumption—From Phosphorus Leakage and Resource Depletion to Recycling. In Water for Food; F？rare, J., Ed.; The Swedish Research Council Formas: Stockholm, Sweden, 2008; pp. 99–108.
[88]
Tilley, E. Phosphorus and Sanitation. In Phosphorus and Global Food Security: A Synthesis; Neset, T.-S.S., Cordell, D., Eds.; Global Phosphorus Research Initiative, Link？ping University: Link？ping, Sweden, 2010.
[89]
FAO Food for the Cities Homepage. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fcit/index.asp (accessed on 12 October 2012).
J？nsson, H. Urine Separation—Swedish Experiences; SLU, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences: Uppsala, Sweden, 2001.
[92]
Kvarnstr？m, E.; Emilsson, K.; Stintzing, A.R.; Johansson, M.; J？nsson, H.; af Petersens, E.; Sch？nning, C.; Christensen, J.; Hellstr？m, D.; Qvarnstr？m, L.; et al. Urine Diversion: One Step towards Sustainable Sanitation; Stockholm Environment Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2006.
[93]
Ashley, K.; Cordell, D.; Mavinic, D. A brief history of phosphorus: From the philosophers stone to nutrient recovery and re-use. Chemosphere 2011, 84, 737–746, doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.03.001.
[94]
Esrey, S.; Andersson, I.; Hillers, A.; Sawyer, R. Closing the Loop: Ecological Sanitation for Food Security; UNDP & SIDA: Mexico City, Mexico, 2001.
[95]
Richert, A.; Gensch, R.; J？nsson, H.; Stenstr？m, T.-A.; Dagerskog, L. Practical Guidance on the Use of Urine in Crop Production; Stockholm Environment Institute: Stockholm, Sweden, 2010.
[96]
Drangert, J.-O. Fighting the urine blindness to provide more sanitation options. Water SA 1998, 24, 157–164.
[97]
Gumbo, B.; Savenije, H.H.G. Inventory of Phosphorus Fluxes and Storage in an Urban-Shed: Options for Local Nutrient Recycling; Internet Dialogue on Ecological Sanitation: Delft, The Netherlands, 2001.
[98]
Dagerskog, L.; Bonzi, M. Opening minds and closing loops—Productive sanitation initiatives in Burkina Faso and Niger. Sustain. Sanit. Pract. 2010, 3, 4–11.
[99]
Willetts, J.R.; Carrard, N.R.; Retamal, M.L.; Nam, N.D.G.; Paddon, M.; Thuy, D.X.; Trung, N.H.; Mitchell, C.A. Cost Effectiveness and Sustainability of Sanitation Options: A Case Study of South Can Tho; Technical Report; Institute for Sustainable Futures, UTS: Sydney, Australia, 2010; pp. 1–49.
[100]
Münch, E.; Sch？pe, A.; Rüd, S. Ecosan—Recycling Oriented Wastewater Management and Sanitation Systems; GTZ: Eschborn, Germany, 2009.
[101]
Johansson, M.; Kvarnstr？m, E. A review of Sanitation Regulatory Frameworks; Stockholm Enviornment Institute (SEI): Stockholm, Sweden, 2005.
[102]
Tilley, E.; Lu？thi, C.; Morel, A.; Zurbru？gg, C.; Schertenleib, R. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies; Eawag/Sandec: Zurich, Switzerland, 2008.
[103]
Kirchmann, H.; Pettersson, S. Human urine—Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency. Fertil. Res. 1995, 40, 149–154, doi:10.1007/BF00750100.
[104]
Raschid-Sally, L.; Jayakody, P. Drivers and Characteristics of Wastewater Agriculture in Developing Countries—Results from a Global Assessment; International Water Management Institute: Battaramulla, Sri Lanka, 2008.
[105]
World Bank. Water Resources and Environment Technical Note F.3 Wastewater Reuse Series; Davis, R., Rafik Hirji, R., Eds.; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
[106]
WHO. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater Volume 4: Excreta and Greywater Use in Agriculture; World Health Organisation: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
[107]
European Commission. Disposal and Recycling Routes for Sewage Sludge Part 3—Scientific and Technical Report; European Commission: Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, 2001.
[108]
Schipper, W.J.; Korving, L. Full-scale Plant Test Using Sewage Sludge Ash as Raw Material for Phosphorus Production. In Proceedings of International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater Streams, Vancouver, Canada, 10–13 May 2009; Ashley, K., Mavinic, D., Koch, F., Eds.; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2009.
[109]
SCOPE. Struvite: Its Role in Phosphorus Recovery and Recycling. In Proceedings of International Conference, Bedford, UK, 17–18 June 2004; Cranfield University: Bedford, UK, 2004.
[110]
Britton, A.; Prasad, R.; Balzer, B.; Cubbage, L. Pilot Testing and Economic Evaluation of Struvite Recovery from Dewatering Centrate at HRSD’s Nansemond WWTP. In Proceedings of International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater Streams, Vancouver, Canada, 10–13 May 2009; Ashley, K., Mavinic, D., Koch, F., Eds.; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2009.
[111]
Mavinic, D.; Ashley, K.; Koch, F. Proceedings of the International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater Streams Vancouver 2009; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2009.
[112]
Shua, L.; Schneidera, P.; Jegatheesana, V.; Johnsonb, J. An economic evaluation of phosphorus recovery as struvite from digester supernatant. Bioresour. Technol. 2005, 97, 2211–2216.
[113]
White, S.; Fane, S.A.; Giurco, D.; Turner, A.J. Putting the economics in its place: Decision-making in an uncertain environment. In Deliberative Ecological Economics; Zografos, C., Howarth, R., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2008; pp. 80–106.
[114]
Dunstan, C.; Langham, E.; Ison, N. 20 Policy Tools for Developing Distributed Energy; Institute for Sustainable Futures: Sydney, Australia, 2009.
[115]
Turner, A.J.; Willetts, J.R.; Fane, S.A.; Giurco, D.; Chong, J.; Kazaglis, A.; White, S. Guide to Demand Management and Integrated Resource Planning; Water Services Association of Australia (WSAA): Sydney, Australia, 2010; pp. 1–174.
[116]
GPRI. Blueprint for Phophorus Security, Draft; Global Phosphorus Research Initiative: Sydney, Australia, 2012.
[117]
Childers, D.L.; Caple, Z.; Carlielle-Marquet, C.; Cordell, D.; Gerhart, V.; Iwaniec, D.; White, S. Chapter 9: Future Scenarios for the Sustainable Use of Global Phosphorus Resources. In Phosphorus, Food, and Our Future; Wyant, K.A., Corman, J.R., Elser., J.J., Eds.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2013. in press.
