Biochar can potentially increase soil fertility and sequester carbon by incorporating nutrients and stable black carbon into the soil; however its effect on soil nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) processes is not well understood. A defined methodology to characterize biochar is necessary to predict how specific biochars will affect C and N mineralization. We amended a Tifton soil (Fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic Plinthic Kandiudults) with peanut hull ( Arachis hypogaea; PH; 2.1% N) and pine chip ( Pinus taeda; PC: 0.4% N) biochar at application rates of 1% and 2% (w/w) and performed a 136-day mineralization study. A companion 24-day mineralization study amended Tifton soil with PH and PC biochar at 2% and their respective feedstocks at equal C rates. Soil C mineralization rates were monitored periodically throughout each study and total N mineralization rates were also measured. In addition, we characterized each biochar using thermogravimetric analysis with mass spectrometer (TGA-MS), proximate analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and total mineral analysis to identify biochar characteristics that might correlate with mineralization properties. Limited C (<2%) mineralized from both biochars, but mineralization rates of soil amended with PH biochar were higher than PC biochar. Carbon mineralization correlated well with estimated aliphatic content determined by TGA-MS but not with volatile content indicated by proximate analysis. Nitrogen was not mineralized from either biochar, indicating that plant-based biochar should not be considered a source of N for plant growth. The N in biochar may be contained in the stable aromatic structure of the biochar, as indicated by TGA-MS, and not available to soil microbes.
References
[1]
Czernik, S.; Bridgwater, A.V. Overview of applications of biomass fast pyrolysis oil. Energy Fuels 2004, 18, 590–598, doi:10.1021/ef034067u.
[2]
Gaunt, J.L.; Lehmann, J. Energy balance and emissions associated with biochar sequestration and pyrolysis bioenergy production. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 4152–4158, doi:10.1021/es071361i.
[3]
Cheng, C.H.; Lehmann, J.; Thies, J.E.; Burton, S.D.; Engelhard, M.H. Oxidation of black carbon by biotic and abiotic processes. Org. Geochem. 2006, 37, 1477–1488, doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2006.06.022.
[4]
Liang, B.; Lehmann, J.; Solomon, D.; Sohi, S.; Thies, J.E.; Skjemstad, J.O.; Luiz？o, F.J.; Engelhard, M.H.; Neves, E.G.; Wirick, S. Stability of biomass-derived black carbon in soils. Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta 2008, 72, 6069–6078, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.09.028.
[5]
Glaser, B.; Lehmann, J.; Zech, W. Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal—A review. Biol. Fertil. Soils 2002, 35, 219–230, doi:10.1007/s00374-002-0466-4.
[6]
Lehmann, J.; da Silva, J.P.; Steiner, C.; Nehls, T.; Zech, W.; Glaser, B. Nutrient availability and leaching in an archaeological anthrosol and a ferralsol of the central amazon basin: Fertilizer, manure and charcoal amendments. Plant Soil 2003, 249, 343–357, doi:10.1023/A:1022833116184.
[7]
Steiner, C.; Glaser, B.; Teixeira, W.G.; Lehmann, J.; Blum, W.E.H.; Zech, W. Nitrogen retention and plant uptake on a highly weathered central amazonian ferralsol amended with compost and charcoal. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. Zeitschrift Fur Pflanzenernahrung Und Bodenkunde 2008, 171, 893–899, doi:10.1002/jpln.200625199.
[8]
Laird, D.A.; Brown, R.C.; Amonette, J.E.; Lehmann, J. Review of the pyrolysis platform for coproducing bio-oil and biochar. Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. 2009, 3, 547–562, doi:10.1002/bbb.169.
[9]
Gaskin, J.W.; Steiner, C.; Harris, K.; Das, K.C.; Bibens, B. Effect of low-temperature pyrolysis conditions on biochar for agricultural use. Trans. ASABE 2008, 51, 2061–2069.
[10]
Antal, M.J.; Gronli, M. The art, science, and technology of charcoal production. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2003, 42, 1619–1640, doi:10.1021/ie0207919.
[11]
Guerrero, M.; Ruiz, M.P.; Millera, A.; Alzueta, M.U.; Bilbao, R. Characterization of biomass chars formed under different devolatilization conditions: Differences between rice husk and eucalyptus. Energy Fuels 2008, 22, 1275–1284, doi:10.1021/ef7005589.
[12]
Brewer, C.E.; Schmidt-Rohr, K.; Satrio, J.A.; Brown, R.C. Characterization of biochar from fast pyrolysis and gasification systems. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 2009, 28, 386–396, doi:10.1002/ep.10378.
[13]
Keiluweit, M.; Nico, P.S.; Johnson, M.G.; Kleber, M. Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 1247–1253, doi:10.1021/es9031419.
[14]
Bird, M.I.; Ascough, P.L.; Young, I.M.; Wood, C.V.; Scottc, A.C. X-ray microtomographic imaging of charcoal. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2008, 35, 2698–2706, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.04.018.
[15]
Keech, O.; Carcaillet, C.; Nilsson, M.C. Adsorption of allelopathic compounds by wood-derived charcoal: The role of wood porosity. Plant Soil 2005, 272, 291–300, doi:10.1007/s11104-004-5485-5.
[16]
Wardle, D.A.; Nilsson, M.C.; Zackrisson, O. Fire-derived charcoal causes loss of forest humus. Science 2008, 320, 629, doi:10.1126/science.1154960.
[17]
Kloss, S.; Zehetner, F.; Dellantonio, A.; Hamid, R.; Ottner, F.; Liedtke, V.; Schwanninger, M.; Gerzabek, M.H.; Soja, G. Characterization of slow pyrolysis biochars: Effects of feedstocks and pyrolysis temperature on biochar properties. J. Environ. Qual. 2012, 41, 990–1000, doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0070.
[18]
Bruun, S.; Jensen, E.S.; Jensen, L.S. Microbial mineralization and assimilation of black carbon: Dependency on degree of thermal alteration. Org. Geochem. 2008, 39, 839–845, doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2008.04.020.
[19]
Kuzyakov, Y.; Subbotina, I.; Chen, H.Q.; Bogomolova, I.; Xu, X.L. Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by c-14 labeling. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2009, 41, 210–219, doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.10.016.
[20]
Zimmerman, A.R. Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (biochar). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 1295–1301, doi:10.1021/es903140c.
[21]
Smith, J.L.; Collins, H.P.; Bailey, V.L. The effect of young biochar on soil respiration. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2010, 42, 2345–2347, doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.09.013.
[22]
Steinbeiss, S.; Gleixner, G.; Antonietti, M. Effect of biochar amendment on soil carbon balance and soil microbial activity. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2009, 41, 1301–1310, doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2009.03.016.
[23]
Hilscher, A.; Heister, K.; Siewert, C.; Knicker, H. Mineralisation and structural changes during the initial phase of microbial degradation of pyrogenic plant residues in soil. Org. Geochem. 2009, 40, 332–342, doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2008.12.004.
[24]
Deenik, J.L.; McClellan, T.; Uehara, G.; Antal, M.J.; Campbell, S. Charcoal volatile matter content influences plant growth and soil nitrogen transformations. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 2010, 74, 1259–1270, doi:10.2136/sssaj2009.0115.
[25]
Jones, D.L.; Murphy, D.V.; Khalid, M.; Ahmad, W.; Edwards-Jones, G.; DeLuca, T.H. Short-term biochar-induced increase in soil co2 release is both biotically and abiotically mediated. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2011, 43, 1723–1731, doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.04.018.
[26]
Zimmerman, A.R.; Gao, B.; Ahn, M.Y. Positive and negative carbon mineralization priming effects among a variety of biochar-amended soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2011, 43, 1169–1179, doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.02.005.
[27]
Liang, B.Q.; Lehmann, J.; Sohi, S.P.; Thies, J.E.; O'Neill, B.; Trujillo, L.; Gaunt, J.; Solomon, D.; Grossman, J.; Neves, E.G.; Luizao, F.J. Black carbon affects the cycling of non-black carbon in soil. Org. Geochem. 2010, 41, 206–213, doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2009.09.007.
[28]
Pietikainen, J.; Kiikkila, O.; Fritze, H. Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus. Oikos 2000, 89, 231–242.
[29]
Zackrisson, O.; Nilsson, M.C.; Wardle, D.A. Key ecological function of charcoal from wildfire in the boreal forest. Oikos 1996, 77, 10–19, doi:10.2307/3545580.
[30]
Gaskin, J.W.; Speir, R.A.; Harris, K.; Das, K.C.; Lee, R.D.; Morris, L.A.; Fisher, D.S. Effect of peanut hull and pine chip biochar on soil nutrients, corn nutrient status, and yield. Agron. J. 2010, 102, 623–633, doi:10.2134/agronj2009.0083.
[31]
Chan, K.Y.; Zwieten, L.V.; Meszaros, I.; Downie, A.; Joseph, S. Using poultry litter biochars as soil amendments. Aust. J. Soil Res. 2008, 46, 437–444, doi:10.1071/SR08036.
[32]
Tagoe, S.O.; Horiuchi, T.; Matsui, T. Effects of carbonized and dried chicken manures on the growth, yield, and n content of soybean. Plant Soil 2008, 306, 211–220, doi:10.1007/s11104-008-9573-9.
[33]
DeLuca, T.H.; MacKenzie, M.D.; Gundale, M.J.; Holben, W.E. Wildfire-produced charcoal directly influences nitrogen cycling in ponderosa pine forests. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 2006, 70, 448–453, doi:10.2136/sssaj2005.0096.
Schomberg, H.H.; Gaskin, J.W.; Harris, K.; Das, K.C.; Novak, J.M.; Busscher, W.J.; Watts, D.W.; Woodroof, R.H.; Lima, I.M.; Ahmedna, M.; et al. Influence of biochar on nitrogen fractions in a coastal plain soil. J. Environ. Qual. 2012, 41, 1087–1095, doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0133.
[37]
Novak, J.M.; Busscher, W.J.; Watts, D.W.; Laird, D.A.; Ahmedna, M.A.; Niandou, M.A.S. Short-term CO2 mineralization after additions of biochar and switchgrass to a typic kandiudult. Geoderma 2010, 154, 281–288, doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.10.014.
[38]
Lyons, G.; Kilpatrick, M.; Sharma, H.S.S.; Noble, R.; Dobrovin-Pennington, A.; Hobbs, P.; Andrews, F.; Carmichael, E. Characterization of recycled mushroom compost leachate by chemical analysis and thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 6488–6497, doi:10.1021/jf800487e.
[39]
USEPA. Methods for Determination of Metals in Environmental Smples, Supplement 1; Environment Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Office of Research and Development: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 1994.
[40]
Deenik, J.L.; Diarra, A.; Uehara, G.; Campbell, S.; Sumiyoshi, Y.; Antal, M.J. Charcoal ash and volatile matter effects on soil properties and plant growth in an acid ultisol. Soil Sci. 2011, 176, 336–345, doi:10.1097/SS.0b013e31821fbfea.
[41]
Kolb, S.E.; Fermanich, K.J.; Dornbush, M.E. Effect of charcoal quantity on microbial biomass and activity in temperate soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 2009, 73, 1173–1181, doi:10.2136/sssaj2008.0232.
[42]
Kara, O.; Bolat, I. Short-term effects of wildfire on microbial biomass and abundance in black pine plantation soils in turkey. Ecol. Indic. 2009, 9, 1151–1155, doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2009.01.002.
[43]
Joseph, S.D.; Camps-Arbestain, M.; Lin, Y.; Munroe, P.; Chia, C.H.; Hook, J.; van Zwieten, L.; Kimber, S.; Cowie, A.; Singh, B.P.; et al. An investigation into the reactions of biochar in soil. Aust. J. Soil Res. 2010, 48, 501–515, doi:10.1071/SR10009.
[44]
Cheng, C.H.; Lehmann, J.; Engelhard, M.H. Natural oxidation of black carbon in soils: Changes in molecular form and surface charge along a climosequence. Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta 2008, 72, 1598–1610, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.01.010.
[45]
Cheng, C.H.; Lehmann, J. Ageing of black carbon along a temperature gradient. Chemosphere 2009, 75, 1021–1027, doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.01.045.
[46]
Varhegyi, G.; Szabo, P.; Till, F.; Zelei, B.; Antal, M.J.; Dai, X.F. Tg, tg-ms, and ftir characterization of high-yield biomass charcoals. Energy Fuels 1998, 12, 969–974, doi:10.1021/ef9800359.
[47]
Stanczyk, K.; Dziembaj, R.; Piwowarska, Z.; Witkowski, S. Transformation of nitrogen structures in carbonization of model compounds determined by xps. Carbon 1995, 33, 1383–1392, doi:10.1016/0008-6223(95)00084-Q.
[48]
Schmiers, H.; Friebel, J.; Streubel, P.; Hesse, R.; Kopsel, R. Change of chemical bonding of nitrogen of polymeric n-heterocyclic compounds during pyrolysis. Carbon 1999, 37, 1965–1978, doi:10.1016/S0008-6223(99)00071-8.
[49]
Knicker, H. How does fire affect the nature and stability of soil organic nitrogen and carbon? A review. Biogeochemistry 2007, 85, 91–118, doi:10.1007/s10533-007-9104-4.
