全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...
Viruses  2013 

Breaking In: Human Metapneumovirus Fusion and Entry

DOI: 10.3390/v5010192

Keywords: metapneumovirus, fusion protein, paramyxovirus, integrin

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a leading cause of respiratory infection that causes upper airway and severe lower respiratory tract infections. HMPV infection is initiated by viral surface glycoproteins that attach to cellular receptors and mediate virus membrane fusion with cellular membranes. Most paramyxoviruses use two viral glycoproteins to facilitate virus entry—an attachment protein and a fusion (F) protein. However, membrane fusion for the human paramyxoviruses in the Pneumovirus subfamily, HMPV and respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), is unique in that the F protein drives fusion in the absence of a separate viral attachment protein. Thus, pneumovirus F proteins can perform the necessary functions for virus entry, i.e., attachment and fusion. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of how HMPV F mediates both attachment and fusion. We review the requirements for HMPV viral surface glycoproteins during entry and infection, and review the identification of cellular receptors for HMPV F. We also review our current understanding of how HMPV F mediates fusion, concentrating on structural regions of the protein that appear to be critical for membrane fusion activity. Finally, we illuminate key unanswered questions and suggest how further studies can elucidate how this clinically important paramyxovirus fusion protein may have evolved to initiate infection by a unique mechanism.

References

[1]  van den Hoogen, B.G.; de Jong, J.C.; Groen, J.; Kuiken, T.; de Groot, R.; Fouchier, R.A.; Osterhaus, A.D. A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat. Med. 2001, 7, 719–724, doi:10.1038/89098.
[2]  Schildgen, V.; van den Hoogen, B.; Fouchier, R.; Tripp, R.A.; Alvarez, R.; Manoha, C.; Williams, J.; Schildgen, O. Human metapneumovirus: Lessons learned over the first decade. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2011, 24, 734–754, doi:10.1128/CMR.00015-11.
[3]  Cook, J.K. Avian pneumovirus infections of turkeys and chickens. Vet. J. 2000, 160, 118–125.
[4]  van den Hoogen, B.G.; Bestebroer, T.M.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A. Analysis of the genomic sequence of a human metapneumovirus. Virology 2002, 295, 119–132, doi:10.1006/viro.2001.1355.
[5]  Williams, J.V.; Harris, P.A.; Tollefson, S.J.; Halburnt-Rush, L.L.; Pingsterhaus, J.M.; Edwards, K.M.; Wright, P.F.; Crowe, J.E., Jr. Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004, 350, 443–450.
[6]  de Graaf, M.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A.; Holmes, E.C. Evolutionary dynamics of human and avian metapneumoviruses. J. Gen. Virol. 2008, 89, 2933–2942.
[7]  Yang, C.F.; Wang, C.K.; Tollefson, S.J.; Piyaratna, R.; Lintao, L.D.; Chu, M.; Liem, A.; Mark, M.; Spaete, R.R.; Crowe, J.E., Jr.; et al. Genetic diversity and evolution of human metapneumovirus fusion protein over twenty years. Virol. J. 2009, 6, 138, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-6-138.
[8]  Williams, J.V.; Wang, C.K.; Yang, C.F.; Tollefson, S.J.; House, F.S.; Heck, J.M.; Chu, M.; Brown, J.B.; Lintao, L.D.; Quinto, J.D.; et al. The role of human metapneumovirus in upper respiratory tract infections in children: A 20-year experience. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 193, 387–395, doi:10.1086/499274.
[9]  van den Hoogen, B.G.; van Doornum, G.J.; Fockens, J.C.; Cornelissen, J.J.; Beyer, W.E.; de Groot, R.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A. Prevalence and clinical symptoms of human metapneumovirus infection in hospitalized patients. J. Infect. Dis. 2003, 188, 1571–1577, doi:10.1086/379200.
[10]  Peiris, J.S.; Tang, W.H.; Chan, K.H.; Khong, P.L.; Guan, Y.; Lau, Y.L.; Chiu, S.S. Children with respiratory disease associated with metapneumovirus in hong kong. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2003, 9, 628–633, doi:10.3201/eid0906.030009.
[11]  Mullins, J.A.; Erdman, D.D.; Weinberg, G.A.; Edwards, K.; Hall, C.B.; Walker, F.J.; Iwane, M.; Anderson, L.J. Human metapneumovirus infection among children hospitalized with acute respiratory illness. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 700–705.
[12]  McAdam, A.J.; Hasenbein, M.E.; Feldman, H.A.; Cole, S.E.; Offermann, J.T.; Riley, A.M.; Lieu, T.A. Human metapneumovirus in children tested at a tertiary-care hospital. J. Infect. Dis. 2004, 190, 20–26, doi:10.1086/421120.
[13]  Mackay, I.M.; Bialasiewicz, S.; Jacob, K.C.; McQueen, E.; Arden, K.E.; Nissen, M.D.; Sloots, T.P. Genetic diversity of human metapneumovirus over 4 consecutive years in australia. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 193, 1630–1633, doi:10.1086/504260.
[14]  Foulongne, V.; Guyon, G.; Rodiere, M.; Segondy, M. Human metapneumovirus infection in young children hospitalized with respiratory tract disease. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2006, 25, 354–359, doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000207480.55201.f6.
[15]  Esper, F.; Martinello, R.A.; Boucher, D.; Weibel, C.; Ferguson, D.; Landry, M.L.; Kahn, J.S. A 1-year experience with human metapneumovirus in children aged <5 years. J. Infect. Dis. 2004, 189, 1388–1396, doi:10.1086/382482.
[16]  Ebihara, T.; Endo, R.; Kikuta, H.; Ishiguro, N.; Ishiko, H.; Hara, M.; Takahashi, Y.; Kobayashi, K. Human metapneumovirus infection in japanese children. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2004, 42, 126–132.
[17]  Dollner, H.; Risnes, K.; Radtke, A.; Nordbo, S.A. Outbreak of human metapneumovirus infection in norwegian children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2004, 23, 436–440, doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000126401.21779.74.
[18]  Boivin, G.; De Serres, G.; Cote, S.; Gilca, R.; Abed, Y.; Rochette, L.; Bergeron, M.G.; Dery, P. Human metapneumovirus infections in hospitalized children. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2003, 9, 634–640, doi:10.3201/eid0906.030017.
[19]  Williams, J.V.; Martino, R.; Rabella, N.; Otegui, M.; Parody, R.; Heck, J.M.; Crowe, J.E., Jr. A prospective study comparing human metapneumovirus with other respiratory viruses in adults with hematologic malignancies and respiratory tract infections. J. Infect. Dis. 2005, 192, 1061–1065, doi:10.1086/432732.
[20]  Williams, J.V.; Crowe, J.E., Jr.; Enriquez, R.; Minton, P.; Peebles, R.S., Jr.; Hamilton, R.G.; Higgins, S.; Griffin, M.; Hartert, T.V. Human metapneumovirus infection plays an etiologic role in acute asthma exacerbations requiring hospitalization in adults. J. Infect. Dis. 2005, 192, 1149–1153, doi:10.1086/444392.
[21]  Vicente, D.; Montes, M.; Cilla, G.; Perez-Trallero, E. Human metapneumovirus and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 1338–1339, doi:10.3201/eid1007.030633.
[22]  Pelletier, G.; Dery, P.; Abed, Y.; Boivin, G. Respiratory tract reinfections by the new human metapneumovirus in an immunocompromised child. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 976–978, doi:10.3201/eid0809.020238.
[23]  Madhi, S.A.; Ludewick, H.; Abed, Y.; Klugman, K.P.; Boivin, G. Human metapneumovirus-associated lower respiratory tract infections among hospitalized human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (hiv-1)-infected and hiv-1-uninfected african infants. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2003, 37, 1705–1710, doi:10.1086/379771.
[24]  Larcher, C.; Geltner, C.; Fischer, H.; Nachbaur, D.; Muller, L.C.; Huemer, H.P. Human metapneumovirus infection in lung transplant recipients: Clinical presentation and epidemiology. J. Heart. Lung. Transplant. 2005, 24, 1891–1901, doi:10.1016/j.healun.2005.02.014.
[25]  Englund, J.A.; Boeckh, M.; Kuypers, J.; Nichols, W.G.; Hackman, R.C.; Morrow, R.A.; Fredricks, D.N.; Corey, L. Brief communication: Fatal human metapneumovirus infection in stem-cell transplant recipients. Ann. Intern. Med. 2006, 144, 344–349.
[26]  Brodzinski, H.; Ruddy, R.M. Review of new and newly discovered respiratory tract viruses in children. Pediatr. Emerg. Care 2009, 25, 352–360, doi:10.1097/PEC.0b013e3181a3497e.
[27]  Loughlin, G.M.; Moscona, A. The cell biology of acute childhood respiratory disease: Therapeutic implications. Pediatr. Clin. North. Am. 2006, 53, 929–959, doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2006.08.004.
[28]  Kuiken, T.; van den Hoogen, B.G.; van Riel, D.A.; Laman, J.D.; van Amerongen, G.; Sprong, L.; Fouchier, R.A.; Osterhaus, A.D. Experimental human metapneumovirus infection of cynomolgus macaques (macaca fascicularis) results in virus replication in ciliated epithelial cells and pneumocytes with associated lesions throughout the respiratory tract. Am. J. Pathol. 2004, 164, 1893–1900, doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63750-9.
[29]  Williams, J.V.; Tollefson, S.J.; Johnson, J.E.; Crowe, J.E., Jr. The cotton rat (sigmodon hispidus) is a permissive small animal model of human metapneumovirus infection, pathogenesis, and protective immunity. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 10944–10951, doi:10.1128/JVI.79.17.10944-10951.2005.
[30]  Hamelin, M.E.; Prince, G.A.; Gomez, A.M.; Kinkead, R.; Boivin, G. Human metapneumovirus infection induces long-term pulmonary inflammation associated with airway obstruction and hyperresponsiveness in mice. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 193, 1634–1642, doi:10.1086/504262.
[31]  Roberts, S.R.; Compans, R.W.; Wertz, G.W. Respiratory syncytial virus matures at the apical surfaces of polarized epithelial cells. J. Virol. 1995, 69, 2667–2673.
[32]  Shaikh, F.Y.; Cox, R.G.; Lifland, A.W.; Hotard, A.L.; Williams, J.V.; Moore, M.L.; Santangelo, P.J.; Crowe, J.E., Jr. A critical phenylalanine residue in the respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein cytoplasmic tail mediates assembly of internal viral proteins into viral filaments and particles. MBio 2012, 3, doi:10.1128/mBio.00270-11.
[33]  Sabo, Y.; Ehrlich, M.; Bacharach, E. The conserved yagl motif in human metapneumovirus is required for higher-order cellular assemblies of the matrix protein and for virion production. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 6594–6609.
[34]  Lamb, R.A. Paramyxovirus fusion: A hypothesis for changes. Virology 1993, 197, 1–11, doi:10.1006/viro.1993.1561.
[35]  Karron, R.A.; Buonagurio, D.A.; Georgiu, A.F.; Whitehead, S.S.; Adamus, J.E.; Clements-Mann, M.L.; Harris, D.O.; Randolph, V.B.; Udem, S.A.; Murphy, B.R.; et al. Respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) sh and g proteins are not essential for viral replication in vitro: Clinical evaluation and molecular characterization of a cold-passaged, attenuated rsv subgroup b mutant. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997, 94, 13961–13966.
[36]  Feldman, S.A.; Audet, S.; Beeler, J.A. The fusion glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial virus facilitates virus attachment and infectivity via an interaction with cellular heparan sulfate. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 6442–6447.
[37]  Kahn, J.S.; Schnell, M.J.; Buonocore, L.; Rose, J.K. Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus expressing respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) glycoproteins: Rsv fusion protein can mediate infection and cell fusion. Virology 1999, 254, 81–91, doi:10.1006/viro.1998.9535.
[38]  Schlender, J.; Zimmer, G.; Herrler, G.; Conzelmann, K.K. Respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) fusion protein subunit f2, not attachment protein g, determines the specificity of rsv infection. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 4609–4616, doi:10.1128/JVI.77.8.4609-4616.2003.
[39]  Techaarpornkul, S.; Barretto, N.; Peeples, M.E. Functional analysis of recombinant respiratory syncytial virus deletion mutants lacking the small hydrophobic and/or attachment glycoprotein gene. J. Virol. 2001, 75, 6825–6834, doi:10.1128/JVI.75.15.6825-6834.2001.
[40]  Techaarpornkul, S.; Collins, P.L.; Peeples, M.E. Respiratory syncytial virus with the fusion protein as its only viral glycoprotein is less dependent on cellular glycosaminoglycans for attachment than complete virus. Virology 2002, 294, 296–304, doi:10.1006/viro.2001.1340.
[41]  Widjojoatmodjo, M.N.; Boes, J.; van Bers, M.; van Remmerden, Y.; Roholl, P.J.; Luytjes, W. A highly attenuated recombinant human respiratory syncytial virus lacking the g protein induces long-lasting protection in cotton rats. Virol. J. 2010, 7, 114, doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-114.
[42]  Teng, M.N.; Whitehead, S.S.; Collins, P.L. Contribution of the respiratory syncytial virus g glycoprotein and its secreted and membrane-bound forms to virus replication in vitro and in vivo. Virology 2001, 289, 283–296, doi:10.1006/viro.2001.1138.
[43]  Biacchesi, S.; Pham, Q.N.; Skiadopoulos, M.H.; Murphy, B.R.; Collins, P.L.; Buchholz, U.J. Infection of nonhuman primates with recombinant human metapneumovirus lacking the sh, g, or m2-2 protein categorizes each as a nonessential accessory protein and identifies vaccine candidates. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 12608–12613, doi:10.1128/JVI.79.19.12608-12613.2005.
[44]  Biacchesi, S.; Skiadopoulos, M.H.; Yang, L.; Lamirande, E.W.; Tran, K.C.; Murphy, B.R.; Collins, P.L.; Buchholz, U.J. Recombinant human metapneumovirus lacking the small hydrophobic sh and/or attachment g glycoprotein: Deletion of g yields a promising vaccine candidate. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 12877–12887, doi:10.1128/JVI.78.23.12877-12887.2004.
[45]  Hallak, L.K.; Collins, P.L.; Knudson, W.; Peeples, M.E. Iduronic acid-containing glycosaminoglycans on target cells are required for efficient respiratory syncytial virus infection. Virology 2000, 271, 264–275, doi:10.1006/viro.2000.0293.
[46]  Krusat, T.; Streckert, H.J. Heparin-dependent attachment of respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) to host cells. Arch. Virol. 1997, 142, 1247–1254, doi:10.1007/s007050050156.
[47]  Thammawat, S.; Sadlon, T.A.; Hallsworth, P.G.; Gordon, D.L. Role of cellular glycosaminoglycans and charged regions of viral g protein in human metapneumovirus infection. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 11767–11774, doi:10.1128/JVI.01208-08.
[48]  Lamb, R.A.; Jardetzky, T.S. Structural basis of viral invasion: Lessons from paramyxovirus f. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 2007, 17, 427–436, doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2007.08.016.
[49]  Russell, C.J.; Jardetzky, T.S.; Lamb, R.A. Membrane fusion machines of paramyxoviruses: Capture of intermediates of fusion. EMBO J 2001, 20, 4024–4034, doi:10.1093/emboj/20.15.4024.
[50]  Miller, S.A.; Tollefson, S.; Crowe, J.E., Jr.; Williams, J.V.; Wright, D.W. Examination of a fusogenic hexameric core from human metapneumovirus and identification of a potent synthetic peptide inhibitor from the heptad repeat 1 region. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 141–149, doi:10.1128/JVI.01243-06.
[51]  Deffrasnes, C.; Hamelin, M.E.; Prince, G.A.; Boivin, G. Identification and evaluation of a highly effective fusion inhibitor for human metapneumovirus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2008, 52, 279–287, doi:10.1128/AAC.00793-07.
[52]  Berman, H.M.; Westbrook, J.; Feng, Z.; Gilliland, G.; Bhat, T.N.; Weissig, H.; Shindyalov, I.N.; Bourne, P.E. The protein data bank. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000, 28, 235–242, doi:10.1093/nar/28.1.235.
[53]  Yin, H.S.; Wen, X.; Paterson, R.G.; Lamb, R.A.; Jardetzky, T.S. Structure of the parainfluenza virus 5 f protein in its metastable, prefusion conformation. Nature 2006, 439, 38–44.
[54]  Swanson, K.A.; Settembre, E.C.; Shaw, C.A.; Dey, A.K.; Rappuoli, R.; Mandl, C.W.; Dormitzer, P.R.; Carfi, A. Structural basis for immunization with postfusion respiratory syncytial virus fusion f glycoprotein (rsv f) to elicit high neutralizing antibody titers. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 9619–9624.
[55]  Wen, X.; Krause, J.C.; Leser, G.P.; Cox, R.G.; Lamb, R.A.; Williams, J.V.; Crowe, J.E., Jr.; Jardetzky, T.S. Structure of the human metapneumovirus fusion protein with neutralizing antibody identifies a pneumovirus antigenic site. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2012, 19, 461–463, doi:10.1038/nsmb.2250.
[56]  van den Hoogen, B.G.; Herfst, S.; Sprong, L.; Cane, P.A.; Forleo-Neto, E.; de Swart, R.L.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A. Antigenic and genetic variability of human metapneumoviruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 658–666, doi:10.3201/eid1004.030393.
[57]  Boivin, G.; Mackay, I.; Sloots, T.P.; Madhi, S.; Freymuth, F.; Wolf, D.; Shemer-Avni, Y.; Ludewick, H.; Gray, G.C.; LeBlanc, E. Global genetic diversity of human metapneumovirus fusion gene. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10, 1154–1157.
[58]  Schowalter, R.M.; Smith, S.E.; Dutch, R.E. Characterization of human metapneumovirus f protein-promoted membrane fusion: Critical roles for proteolytic processing and low ph. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 10931–10941, doi:10.1128/JVI.01287-06.
[59]  Zhang, J.; Dou, Y.; Wu, J.; She, W.; Luo, L.; Zhao, Y.; Liu, P.; Zhao, X. Effects of n-linked glycosylation of the fusion protein on replication of human metapneumovirus in vitro and in mouse lungs. J. Gen. Virol. 2011, 92, 1666–1675, doi:10.1099/vir.0.030049-0.
[60]  Cseke, G.; Maginnis, M.S.; Cox, R.G.; Tollefson, S.J.; Podsiad, A.B.; Wright, D.W.; Dermody, T.S.; Williams, J.V. Integrin alphavbeta1 promotes infection by human metapneumovirus. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 1566–1571.
[61]  Chang, A.; Masante, C.; Buchholz, U.J.; Dutch, R.E. Human metapneumovirus (hmpv) binding and infection are mediated by interactions between the hmpv fusion protein and heparan sulfate. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 3230–3243, doi:10.1128/JVI.06706-11.
[62]  de Graaf, M.; Schrauwen, E.J.; Herfst, S.; van Amerongen, G.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A. Fusion protein is the main determinant of metapneumovirus host tropism. J. Gen. Virol. 2009, 90, 1408–1416, doi:10.1099/vir.0.009688-0.
[63]  Hynes, R.O. Integrins: Bidirectional, allosteric signaling machines. Cell 2002, 110, 673–687, doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00971-6.
[64]  Stewart, P.L.; Nemerow, G.R. Cell integrins: Commonly used receptors for diverse viral pathogens. Trends Microbiol. 2007, 15, 500–507, doi:10.1016/j.tim.2007.10.001.
[65]  Cox, R.G.; Livesay, S.B.; Johnson, M.; Ohi, M.D.; Williams, J.V. The human metapneumovirus fusion protein mediates entry via an interaction with rgd-binding integrins. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 12148–12160, doi:10.1128/JVI.01133-12.
[66]  Wennerberg, K.; Lohikangas, L.; Gullberg, D.; Pfaff, M.; Johansson, S.; Fassler, R. Beta 1 integrin-dependent and -independent polymerization of fibronectin. J. Cell. Biol. 1996, 132, 227–238, doi:10.1083/jcb.132.1.227.
[67]  Fassler, R.; Pfaff, M.; Murphy, J.; Noegel, A.A.; Johansson, S.; Timpl, R.; Albrecht, R. Lack of beta 1 integrin gene in embryonic stem cells affects morphology, adhesion, and migration but not integration into the inner cell mass of blastocysts. J. Cell. Biol. 1995, 128, 979–988, doi:10.1083/jcb.128.5.979.
[68]  Tollefson, S.J.; Cox, R.G.; Williams, J.V. Studies of culture conditions and environmental stability of human metapneumovirus. Virus Res. 2010, 151, 54–59, doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2010.03.018.
[69]  Shirogane, Y.; Takeda, M.; Iwasaki, M.; Ishiguro, N.; Takeuchi, H.; Nakatsu, Y.; Tahara, M.; Kikuta, H.; Yanagi, Y. Efficient multiplication of human metapneumovirus in vero cells expressing the transmembrane serine protease tmprss2. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 8942–8946, doi:10.1128/JVI.00676-08.
[70]  Murakami, M.; Towatari, T.; Ohuchi, M.; Shiota, M.; Akao, M.; Okumura, Y.; Parry, M.A.; Kido, H. Mini-plasmin found in the epithelial cells of bronchioles triggers infection by broad-spectrum influenza a viruses and sendai virus. Eur. J. Biochem. 2001, 268, 2847–2855.
[71]  Lamb, R.A.; Parks, G.D. Paramyxoviridae: The Viruses and their Replication. In Fields virology, 5th; Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M., Eds.; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2007; Volume 1, pp. 1449–1646.
[72]  Herfst, S.; Mas, V.; Ver, L.S.; Wierda, R.J.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A.; Melero, J.A. Low-ph-induced membrane fusion mediated by human metapneumovirus f protein is a rare, strain-dependent phenomenon. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 8891–8895.
[73]  Schowalter, R.M.; Chang, A.; Robach, J.G.; Buchholz, U.J.; Dutch, R.E. Low-ph triggering of human metapneumovirus fusion: Essential residues and importance in entry. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 1511–1522, doi:10.1128/JVI.01381-08.
[74]  Mas, V.; Herfst, S.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Fouchier, R.A.; Melero, J.A. Residues of the human metapneumovirus fusion (f) protein critical for its strain-related fusion phenotype: Implications for the virus replication cycle. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 12650–12661, doi:10.1128/JVI.05485-11.
[75]  Wei, Y.; Feng, K.; Yao, X.; Cai, H.; Li, J.; Mirza, A.M.; Iorio, R.M. Localization of a region in the fusion protein of avian metapneumovirus that modulates cell-cell fusion. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 11800–11814, doi:10.1128/JVI.00232-12.
[76]  Chang, A.; Hackett, B.; Winter, C.C.; Buchholz, U.J.; Dutch, R.E. Potential electrostatic interactions in multiple regions affect hmpv f-mediated membrane fusion. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 9843–9853, doi:10.1128/JVI.00639-12.
[77]  Williams, J.V.; Chen, Z.; Cseke, G.; Wright, D.W.; Keefer, C.J.; Tollefson, S.J.; Hessell, A.; Podsiad, A.; Shepherd, B.E.; Sanna, P.P.; et al. A recombinant human monoclonal antibody to human metapneumovirus fusion protein that neutralizes virus in vitro and is effective therapeutically in vivo. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 8315–8324.
[78]  Swanson, K.; Wen, X.; Leser, G.P.; Paterson, R.G.; Lamb, R.A.; Jardetzky, T.S. Structure of the newcastle disease virus f protein in the post-fusion conformation. Virology 2010, 402, 372–379, doi:10.1016/j.virol.2010.03.050.
[79]  Yin, H.S.; Paterson, R.G.; Wen, X.; Lamb, R.A.; Jardetzky, T.S. Structure of the uncleaved ectodomain of the paramyxovirus (hpiv3) fusion protein. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 9288–9293.
[80]  Tayyari, F.; Marchant, D.; Moraes, T.J.; Duan, W.; Mastrangelo, P.; Hegele, R.G. Identification of nucleolin as a cellular receptor for human respiratory syncytial virus. Nat. Med. 2011, 17, 1132–1135.
[81]  Wilen, C.B.; Tilton, J.C.; Doms, R.W. Molecular mechanisms of hiv entry. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2012, 726, 223–242, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0980-9_10.

Full-Text

comments powered by Disqus

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133

WeChat 1538708413