Theoretical calculations suggest that sounds produced by thunderstorms and detected by a system similar to the International Monitoring System (IMS) for the detection of nuclear explosions at distances ≥100 km, are at sound pressure levels equal to or greater than 6 × 10 ?3 Pa. Such sound pressure levels are well within the range of elephant hearing. Frequencies carrying these sounds might allow for interaural time delays such that adult elephants could not only hear but could also locate the source of these sounds. Determining whether it is possible for elephants to hear and locate thunderstorms contributes to the question of whether elephant movements are triggered or influenced by these abiotic sounds.
References
[1]
Garstang, M. Long-distance, low-frequency elephant communication. J. Comp. Physiol. A 2004, 190, 791–805, doi:10.1007/s00359-004-0553-0.
[2]
Garstang, M.; Larom, D.L.; Raspet, R.; Lindeque, M. Atmospheric controls on elephant communication. J. Exp. Biol. 1995, 198, 939–951.
[3]
Byrne, R.; Bates, L. Elephant cognition in primate perspective. Comp. Cognition Behav. Rev. 2009, 4, 65–79.
[4]
Garstang, M.; Fitzjarrald, D.; Fristrup, K.; Brain, C. The daily cycle of low-frequency elephant calls and near-surface atmospheric conditions. Earth Interact. 2005, 9, 1–21.
[5]
Farges, T.; Blanc, E. Characteristics of infrasound from lightning and sprites near thunderstorm areas. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115, doi:10.1029/2009JA014700.
[6]
Lindeque, M.; Lindeque, P.M. Satellite tracking of elephants in northwestern Namibia. Afr. J. Ecol. 1991, 29, 196–206, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1991.tb01002.x.
[7]
Farges, T.; Millet, C.; Matoza, R.S. Infrasound from lightning measured in Ivory Coast. In Proceedings of the 1st TEA-IS Summer School, Málaga, Spain, 17–22 June 2012; pp. 90–91.
[8]
Davis, R.; Garstang, M.; Leggett, K.; Zipser, E.; Greco, S.; Petersen, M. Weather and climate influences on the movement patterns of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the role of infrasound. In Proceedings of the the ISB Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, 5–9 December 2011.
[9]
McComb, K.; Reby, D.; Baker, L.; Moss, C.; Sayialel, S. Long distance communication of acoustic cues to social identity in African elephants. Anim. Behav. 2003, 65, 317–329, doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2047.
[10]
Langbauer, W.R., Jr.; Payne, K.B.; Charif, R.A.; Rapaport, L.; Osborn, F. African elephants respond to distant playbacks of low-frequency conspecific calls. J. Exp. Biol. 1991, 157, 35–46.
[11]
Poole, J.H.; Payne, K.; Langbauer, W.R., Jr.; Moss, C. The social context of some very low-frequency calls of African elephants. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1988, 22, 385–392, doi:10.1007/BF00294975.
[12]
Durrant, J.D.; Lovrinic, J.H. Bases of Hearing Sciences, 2nd ed.; Williams and Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, USA, 1984.
[13]
Gelfand, S.A. Hearing: An Introduction to Psychological and Physiological Acoustics, 2nd ed.; Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1990.
[14]
Heffner, H.; Heffner, R. Hearing in the elephant (Elephas maximus). Science 1980, 208, 518–520.