Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) are a common phenomenon, occurring in the “healthy” population as well as in several mental illnesses, most notably schizophrenia. Current thinking supports a spectrum conceptualisation of AVH: several neurocognitive hypotheses of AVH have been proposed, including the “feed-forward” model of failure to provide appropriate information to somatosensory cortices so that stimuli appear unbidden, and an “aberrant memory model” implicating deficient memory processes. Neuroimaging and connectivity studies are in broad agreement with these with a general dysconnectivity between frontotemporal regions involved in language, memory and salience properties. Disappointingly many AVH remain resistant to standard treatments and persist for many years. There is a need to develop novel therapies to augment existing pharmacological and psychological therapies: transcranial magnetic stimulation has emerged as a potential treatment, though more recent clinical data has been less encouraging. Our understanding of AVH remains incomplete though much progress has been made in recent years. We herein provide a broad overview and review of this.
References
[1]
Sartorius, N.; Jablensky, A.; Korten, A.; Ernberg, G.; Anker, M.; Cooper, J.E.; Day, R. Early manifestations and first-contact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. A preliminary report on the initial evaluation phase of the who collaborative study on determinants of outcome of severe mental disorders. Psychol. Med. 1986, 16, 909–928, doi:10.1017/S0033291700011910.
[2]
Shergill, S.S.; Murray, R.M.; McGuire, P.K. Auditory hallucinations: A review of psychological treatments. Schizophr. Res. 1998, 32, 137–150, doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(98)00052-8.
[3]
Slotema, C.W.; Daalman, K.; Blom, J.D.; Diederen, K.M.; Hoek, H.W.; Sommer, I.E. Auditory verbal hallucinations in patients with borderline personality disorder are similar to those in schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 2012, 42, 1873–1878, doi:10.1017/S0033291712000165.
[4]
Hauf, M.; Wiest, R.; Schindler, K.; Jann, K.; Dierks, T.; Strik, W.; Schroth, G.; Hubl, D. Common mechanisms of auditory hallucinations-perfusion studies in epilepsy. Psychiatry Res. 2012, 211, 268–270.
[5]
Andreasen, N.C.; Flaum, M. Schizophrenia: The characteristic symptoms. Schizophr. Bull. 1991, 17, 27–49, doi:10.1093/schbul/17.1.27.
[6]
Laroi, F.; Sommer, I.E.; Blom, J.D.; Fernyhough, C.; Ffytche, D.H.; Hugdahl, K.; Johns, L.C.; McCarthy-Jones, S.; Preti, A.; Raballo, A.; et al. The characteristic features of auditory verbal hallucinations in clinical and nonclinical groups: State-of-the-art overview and future directions. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 724–733, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs061.
[7]
Nayani, T.H.; David, A.S. The auditory hallucination: A phenomenological survey. Psychol. Med. 1996, 26, 177–189, doi:10.1017/S003329170003381X.
[8]
Badcock, J.C.; Hugdahl, K. Cognitive mechanisms of auditory verbal hallucinations in psychotic and non-psychotic groups. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2012, 36, 431–438, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.07.010.
[9]
Beavan, V.; Read, J.; Cartwright, C. The prevalence of voice-hearers in the general population: A literature review. J. Ment. Health 2011, 20, 281–292.
[10]
Smeets, F.; Lataster, T.; van Winkel, R.; de Graaf, R.; Ten Have, M.; van Os, J. Testing the hypothesis that psychotic illness begins when subthreshold hallucinations combine with delusional ideation. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2013, 127, 34–47, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01888.x.
[11]
Sommer, I.E.; Daalman, K.; Rietkerk, T.; Diederen, K.M.; Bakker, S.; Wijkstra, J.; Boks, M.P. Healthy individuals with auditory verbal hallucinations; who are they? Psychiatric assessments of a selected sample of 103 subjects. Schizophr. Bull. 2010, 36, 633–641, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn130.
[12]
Birchwood, M.; Meaden, A.; Trower, P.; Gilbert, P.; Plaistow, J. The power and omnipotence of voices: Subordination and entrapment by voices and significant others. Psychol. Med. 2000, 30, 337–344, doi:10.1017/S0033291799001828.
[13]
Johns, L.C.; Hemsley, D.; Kuipers, E. A comparison of auditory hallucinations in a psychiatric and non-psychiatric group. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 2002, 41, 81–86, doi:10.1348/014466502163813.
[14]
Falkenburg, J.; Tracy, D.K. Sex and schizophrenia: A review of gender differences. Psychos. Psychol. Soc. Integr. Approaches 2012, doi:10.1080/17522439.2012.733405.
[15]
Johns, L.C.; Nazroo, J.Y.; Bebbington, P.; Kuipers, E. Occurrence of hallucinatory experiences in a community sample and ethnic variations. Br. J. Psychiatry 2002, 180, 174–178, doi:10.1192/bjp.180.2.174.
[16]
Murphy, J.; Shevlin, M.; Houston, J.; Adamson, G. A population based analysis of subclinical psychosis and help-seeking behavior. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 360–367, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbq092.
[17]
Van Os, J.; Linscott, R.J.; Myin-Germeys, I.; Delespaul, P.; Krabbendam, L. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: Evidence for a psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model of psychotic disorder. Psychol. Med. 2009, 39, 179–195, doi:10.1017/S0033291708003814.
[18]
Daalman, K.; Boks, M.P.; Diederen, K.M.; de Weijer, A.D.; Blom, J.D.; Kahn, R.S.; Sommer, I.E. The same or different? A phenomenological comparison of auditory verbal hallucinations in healthy and psychotic individuals. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2011, 72, 320–325, doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05797yel.
[19]
van der Meer, L.; van’t Wout, M.; Aleman, A. Emotion regulation strategies in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 2009, 170, 108–113, doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.07.010.
[20]
Fett, A.K.; Shergill, S.S.; Joyce, D.W.; Riedl, A.; Strobel, M.; Gromann, P.M.; Krabbendam, L. To trust or not to trust: The dynamics of social interaction in psychosis. Brain 2012, 135, 976–984.
[21]
Weiser, M.; van Os, J.; Davidson, M. Time for a shift in focus in schizophrenia: From narrow phenotypes to broad endophenotypes. Br. J. Psychiatry 2005, 187, 203–205, doi:10.1192/bjp.187.3.203.
[22]
Cardno, A.G.; Rijsdijk, F.V.; Sham, P.C.; Murray, R.M.; McGuffin, P. A twin study of genetic relationships between psychotic symptoms. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159, 539–545, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.4.539.
[23]
Lewis, C.M.; Levinson, D.F.; Wise, L.H.; DeLisi, L.E.; Straub, R.E.; Hovatta, I.; Williams, N.M.; Schwab, S.G.; Pulver, A.E.; Faraone, S.V.; et al. Genome scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, part II: Schizophrenia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2003, 73, 34–48, doi:10.1086/376549.
[24]
Kapur, S. Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 2003, 160, 13–23, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.13.
[25]
Maher, B.A. The relationship between delusions and hallucinations. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2006, 8, 179–183, doi:10.1007/s11920-006-0021-3.
[26]
Bentall, R.P.; Fernyhough, C. Social predictors of psychotic experiences: Specificity and psychological mechanisms. Schizophr. Bull. 2008, 34, 1012–1020, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn103.
[27]
Freeman, D. Suspicious minds: The psychology of persecutory delusions. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2007, 27, 425–457, doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.10.004.
[28]
Varese, F.; Bentall, R.P. The metacognitive beliefs account of hallucinatory experiences: A literature review and meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev 2011, 31, 850–864, doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.001.
[29]
Joyce, D.W.; Averbeck, B.B.; Frith, C.D.; Shergill, S.S. Examining belief and confidence in schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 2013, doi:10.1017/S0033291713000263.
[30]
Boks, M.P.; Leask, S.; Vermunt, J.K.; Kahn, R.S. The structure of psychosis revisited: The role of mood symptoms. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 93, 178–185, doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.02.017.
[31]
van Rossum, I.; Dominguez, M.D.; Lieb, R.; Wittchen, H.U.; van Os, J. Affective dysregulation and reality distortion: A 10-year prospective study of their association and clinical relevance. Schizophr. Bull. 2011, 37, 561–571, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp101.
[32]
Varghese, D.; Scott, J.; Welham, J.; Bor, W.; Najman, J.; O’Callaghan, M.; Williams, G.; McGrath, J. Psychotic-like experiences in major depression and anxiety disorders: A population-based survey in young adults. Schizophr. Bull. 2011, 37, 389–393, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp083.
[33]
Freeman, D.; Garety, P. Connecting neurosis and psychosis: The direct influence of emotion on delusions and hallucinations. Behav. Res. Ther. 2002, 41, 923–927, doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00104-3.
Wigman, J.T.; van Nierop, M.; Vollebergh, W.A.; Lieb, R.; Beesdo-Baum, K.; Wittchen, H.U.; van Os, J. Evidence that psychotic symptoms are prevalent in disorders of anxiety and depression, impacting on illness onset, risk, and severity—implications for diagnosis and ultra-high risk research. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 247–257, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr196.
[37]
Olfson, M.; Lewis-Fernandez, R.; Weissman, M.M.; Feder, A.; Gameroff, M.J.; Pilowsky, D.; Fuentes, M. Psychotic symptoms in an urban general medicine practice. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159, 1412–1419, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.8.1412.
[38]
Cassano, P.; Chang, T.; Trinh, N.H.; Baer, L.; Fava, M.; Mischoulon, D. Differential impact of isolated psychotic symptoms on treatment outcome of major depressive disorder in the STAR*D cohort of Whites, Blacks and Latinos. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.02.012.
[39]
Wolpert, D.M.; Ghahramani, Z.; Jordan, M.I. An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science 1995, 269, 1880–1882.
[40]
Frith, C.D.; Blakemore, S.; Wolpert, D.M. Explaining the symptoms of schizophrenia: Abnormalities in the awareness of action. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 2000, 31, 357–363, doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00052-1.
[41]
Blakemore, S.J. Deluding the motor system. Conscious. Cogn. 2003, 12, 647–655, doi:10.1016/j.concog.2003.07.001.
[42]
Shergill, S.S.; White, T.; Joyce, D.; Bays, P.M.; Wolpert, D.M.; Frith, C. Modulation of somatosensory processing by action. NeuroImage 2013, 70, 356–362, doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.12.043.
[43]
Laroi, F. How do auditory verbal hallucinations in patients differ from those in non-patients? Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2012, 6, 25, doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00025.
[44]
Shergill, S.S.; Samson, G.; Bays, P.M.; Frith, C.D.; Wolpert, D.M. Evidence for sensory prediction deficits in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 2384–2386, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2384.
[45]
Waters, F.; Woodward, T.; Allen, P.; Aleman, A.; Sommer, I. Self-recognition deficits in schizophrenia patients with auditory hallucinations: A meta-analysis of the literature. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 741–750, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbq144.
[46]
Rains, L.S.; Fallica, G.; O’Daly, O.; Gilleen, J.; Giampetro, V.; Morley, L.; Shergill, S. Exploring psychotic symptoms: A comparison of motor related neuronal activation during and after acute psychosis. BMC Psychiatry 2012, 12, 102, doi:10.1186/1471-244X-12-102.
[47]
Frith, C. The self in action: Lessons from delusions of control. Conscious. Cogn. 2005, 14, 752–770, doi:10.1016/j.concog.2005.04.002.
[48]
Seal, M.L.; Aleman, A.; McGuire, P.K. Compelling imagery, unanticipated speech and deceptive memory: Neurocognitive models of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry 2004, 9, 43–72, doi:10.1080/13546800344000156.
[49]
Shergill, S.S.; Brammer, M.J.; Williams, S.C.; Murray, R.M.; McGuire, P.K. Mapping auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2000, 57, 1033–1038, doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.11.1033.
[50]
Shergill, S.S.; Bullmore, E.T.; Brammer, M.J.; Williams, S.C.; Murray, R.M.; McGuire, P.K. A functional study of auditory verbal imagery. Psychol. Med. 2001, 31, 241–253.
[51]
Aleman, A.; Bocker, K.B.; Hijman, R.; de Haan, E.H.; Kahn, R.S. Cognitive basis of hallucinations in schizophrenia: Role of top-down information processing. Schizophr. Res. 2003, 64, 175–185, doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00060-4.
[52]
Jones, S.R.; Fernyhough, C. Thought as action: Inner speech, self-monitoring, and auditory verbal hallucinations. Conscious. Cogn. 2007, 16, 391–399, doi:10.1016/j.concog.2005.12.003.
[53]
Dodgson, G.; Gordon, S. Avoiding false negatives: Are some auditory hallucinations an evolved design flaw? Behav. Cogn. Psychother. 2009, 37, 325–334, doi:10.1017/S1352465809005244.
[54]
Fett, A.K.; Gromann, P.M.; Giampietro, V.; Shergill, S.S.; Krabbendam, L. Default distrust? An fMRI investigation of the neural development of trust and cooperation. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2012, doi:10.1093/scan/nss144.
[55]
Waters, F.; Allen, P.; Aleman, A.; Fernyhough, C.; Woodward, T.S.; Badcock, J.C.; Barkus, E.; Johns, L.; Varese, F.; Menon, M.; et al. Auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia and nonschizophrenia populations: A review and integrated model of cognitive mechanisms. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 683–693, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs045.
[56]
Lataster, T.; van Os, J.; Drukker, M.; Henquet, C.; Feron, F.; Gunther, N.; Myin-Germeys, I. Childhood victimisation and developmental expression of non-clinical delusional ideation and hallucinatory experiences: Victimisation and non-clinical psychotic experiences. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2006, 41, 423–428, doi:10.1007/s00127-006-0060-4.
[57]
Read, J.; van Os, J.; Morrison, A.P.; Ross, C.A. Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: A literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2005, 112, 330–350, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00634.x.
Wible, C.G.; Lee, K.; Molina, I.; Hashimoto, R.; Preus, A.P.; Roach, B.J.; Ford, J.M.; Mathalon, D.H.; McCarthey, G.; Turner, J.A.; et al. fMRI activity correlated with auditory hallucinations during performance of a working memory task: Data from the FBIRN consortium study. Schizophr. Bull. 2009, 35, 47–57, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn142.
[60]
Brebion, G.; David, A.S.; Jones, H.M.; Ohlsen, R.; Pilowsky, L.S. Temporal context discrimination in patients with schizophrenia: Associations with auditory hallucinations and negative symptoms. Neuropsychologia 2007, 45, 817–823, doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.08.009.
[61]
Brebion, G.; Gorman, J.M.; Amador, X.; Malaspina, D.; Sharif, Z. Source monitoring impairments in schizophrenia: Characterisation and associations with positive and negative symptomatology. Psychiatry Res. 2002, 112, 27–39, doi:10.1016/S0165-1781(02)00187-7.
[62]
Krishnan, R.R.; Keefe, R.; Kraus, M. Schizophrenia is a disorder of higher order hierarchical processing. Med. Hypotheses 2009, 72, 740–744, doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.12.039.
[63]
Laruelle, M.; Abi-Dargham, A. Dopamine as the wind of the psychotic fire: New evidence from brain imaging studies. J. Psychopharmacol. 1999, 13, 358–371, doi:10.1177/026988119901300405.
[64]
Levey, A.I.; Hersch, S.M.; Rye, D.B.; Sunahara, R.K.; Niznik, H.B.; Kitt, C.A.; Price, D.L.; Maggio, R.; Brann, M.R.; Ciliax, B.J. Localization of d1 and d2 dopamine receptors in brain with subtype-specific antibodies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90, 8861–8865, doi:10.1073/pnas.90.19.8861.
[65]
Sendt, K.V.; Giaroli, G.; Tracy, D.K. Beyond dopamine: Glutamate as a target for future antipsychotics. ISRN Pharmacol. 2012, 2012, 427267.
[66]
Laroi, F.; Woodward, T.S. Hallucinations from a cognitive perspective. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 2007, 15, 109–117, doi:10.1080/10673220701401993.
[67]
O’Daly, O.G.; Joyce, D.; Stephan, K.E.; Murray, R.M.; Shergill, S.S. Functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of the amphetamine sensitization model of schizophrenia in healthy male volunteers. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2011, 68, 545–554, doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.3.
[68]
Gallagher, S. Neurocognitive models of schizophrenia: A neurophenomenological critique. Psychopathology 2004, 37, 8–19, doi:10.1159/000077014.
[69]
Tracy, D.K.; Ho, D.K.; O’Daly, O.; Michalopoulou, P.; Lloyd, L.C.; Dimond, E.; Matsumoto, K.; Shergill, S.S. It’s not what you say but the way that you say it: An fMRI study of differential lexical and non-lexical prosodic pitch processing. BMC Neurosci. 2011, 12, 128, doi:10.1186/1471-2202-12-128.
[70]
Matsumoto, K.; Samson, G.T.; O’Daly, O.D.; Tracy, D.K.; Patel, A.D.; Shergill, S.S. Prosodic discrimination in patients with schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 2006, 189, 180–181, doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.009332.
[71]
Hugdahl, K. “Hearing voices”: Auditory hallucinations as failure of top-down control of bottom-up perceptual processes. Scand. J. Psychol. 2009, 50, 553–560, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00775.x.
[72]
Allen, P.P.; Johns, L.C.; Fu, C.H.; Broome, M.R.; Vythelingum, G.N.; McGuire, P.K. Misattribution of external speech in patients with hallucinations and delusions. Schizophr. Res. 2004, 69, 277–287, doi:10.1016/j.schres.2003.09.008.
[73]
Matsuda, H.; Gyobu, T.; Masayasu, I.; Hisada, K. Increased accumulation of n-isopropyl-(i-123) p-iodoamphetamine in the left auditory area in a schizophrenic patient with auditory hallucinations. Clin. Nuclear Med. 1988, 13, 53–55, doi:10.1097/00003072-198801000-00015.
[74]
Silbersweig, D.A.; Stern, E.; Frith, C.; Cahill, C.; Holmes, A.; Grootoonk, S.; Seaward, J.; McKenna, P.; Chua, S.E.; Schnorr, L.; et al. A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia. Nature 1995, 378, 176–179, doi:10.1038/378176a0.
[75]
Volkow, N.D.; Wolf, A.P.; Van Gelder, P.; Brodie, J.D.; Overall, J.E.; Cancro, R.; Gomez-Mont, F. Phenomenological correlates of metabolic activity in 18 patients with chronic schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 1987, 144, 151–158.
Copolov, D.L.; Seal, M.L.; Maruff, P.; Ulusoy, R.; Wong, M.T.; Tochon-Danguy, H.J.; Egan, G.F. Cortical activation associated with the experience of auditory hallucinations and perception of human speech in schizophrenia: A pet correlation study. Psychiatry Res. 2003, 122, 139–152, doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(02)00121-X.
[85]
Woodruff, P.; Brammer, M.; Mellers, J.; Wright, I.; Bullmore, E.; Williams, S. Auditory hallucinations and perception of external speech. Lancet 1995, 346, 1035, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)91715-2.
[86]
Jardri, R.; Pouchet, A.; Pins, D.; Thomas, P. Cortical activations during auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia: A coordinate-based meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 2011, 168, 73–81, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101522.
[87]
Kuhn, S.; Gallinat, J. Quantitative meta-analysis on state and trait aspects of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 779–786, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbq152.
[88]
Allen, P.; Modinos, G.; Hubl, D.; Shields, G.; Cachia, A.; Jardri, R.; Thomas, P.; Woodward, T.; Shotbolt, P.; Plaze, M.; et al. Neuroimaging auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: From neuroanatomy to neurochemistry and beyond. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 695–703, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs066.
[89]
Linden, D.E.; Thornton, K.; Kuswanto, C.N.; Johnston, S.J.; van de Ven, V.; Jackson, M.C. The brain’s voices: Comparing nonclinical auditory hallucinations and imagery. Cereb Cortex 2011, 21, 330–337, doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq097.
[90]
Diederen, K.M.; Daalman, K.; de Weijer, A.D.; Neggers, S.F.; van Gastel, W.; Blom, J.D.; Kahn, R.S.; Sommer, I.E. Auditory hallucinations elicit similar brain activation in psychotic and nonpsychotic individuals. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, 38, 1074–1082, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr033.
[91]
Diederen, K.M.; Neggers, S.F.; de Weijer, A.D.; van Lutterveld, R.; Daalman, K.; Eickhoff, S.B.; Clos, M.; Kahn, R.S.; Sommer, I.E. Aberrant resting-state connectivity in non-psychotic individuals with auditory hallucinations. Psychol. Med. 2012, doi:10.1017/S0033291712002541.
Vul, E.; Pashler, H. Voodoo and circularity errors. NeuroImage 2012, 62, 945–948, doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.027.
[94]
Kapur, S.; Phillips, A.G.; Insel, T.R. Why has it taken so long for biological psychiatry to develop clinical tests and what to do about it? Mol. Psychiatry 2012, 17, 1174–1179, doi:10.1038/mp.2012.105.
[95]
Power, J.D.; Cohen, A.L.; Nelson, S.M.; Wig, G.S.; Barnes, K.A.; Church, J.A.; Vogel, A.C.; Laumann, T.O.; Miezin, F.M.; Schlaggar, B.L.; et al. Functional network organization of the human brain. Neuron 2011, 72, 665–678, doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.09.006.
[96]
Vertes, P.E.; Alexander-Bloch, A.F.; Gogtay, N.; Giedd, J.N.; Rapoport, J.L.; Bullmore, E.T. Simple models of human brain functional networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 5868–5873.
[97]
Behrens, T.E.; Sporns, O. Human connectomics. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2012, 22, 144–153, doi:10.1016/j.conb.2011.08.005.
[98]
Bullmore, E.; Sporns, O. Complex brain networks: Graph theoretical analysis of structural and functional systems. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009, 10, 186–198, doi:10.1038/nrn2575.
[99]
Doucet, G.; Naveau, M.; Petit, L.; Zago, L.; Crivello, F.; Jobard, G.; Delcroix, N.; Mellet, E.; Tzourio-Mazoyer, N.; Mazoyer, B.; et al. Patterns of hemodynamic low-frequency oscillations in the brain are modulated by the nature of free thought during rest. NeuroImage 2012, 59, 3194–3200, doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.059.
[100]
Raichle, M.E.; MacLeod, A.M.; Snyder, A.Z.; Powers, W.J.; Gusnard, D.A.; Shulman, G.L. A default mode of brain function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 676–682.
[101]
Kane, M.J.; Brown, L.H.; McVay, J.C.; Silvia, P.J.; Myin-Germeys, I.; Kwapil, T.R. For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychol. Sci. 2007, 18, 614–621, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x.
[102]
Buckner, R.L.; Andrews-Hanna, J.R.; Schacter, D.L. The brain’s default network: Anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1124, 1–38, doi:10.1196/annals.1440.011.
[103]
Spreng, R.N.; Stevens, W.D.; Chamberlain, J.P.; Gilmore, A.W.; Schacter, D.L. Default network activity, coupled with the frontoparietal control network, supports goal-directed cognition. NeuroImage 2011, 53, 303–317.
[104]
Sepulcre, J.; Sabuncu, M.R.; Johnson, K.A. Network assemblies in the functional brain. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 2012, 25, 384–391.
[105]
Doucet, G.; Naveau, M.; Petit, L.; Delcroix, N.; Zago, L.; Crivello, F.; Jobard, G.; Tzourio-Mazoyer, N.; Mazoyer, B.; Mellet, E.; et al. Brain activity at rest: A multiscale hierarchical functional organization. J. Neurophysiol. 2011, 105, 2753–2763, doi:10.1152/jn.00895.2010.
[106]
Van Os, J.; Kapur, S. Schizophrenia. Lancet 2009, 374, 635–645, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8.
Hoffman, R.E.; Hampson, M. Functional connectivity studies of patients with auditory verbal hallucinations. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2012, 6, 6.
[109]
Pettersson-Yeo, W.; Allen, P.; Benetti, S.; McGuire, P.; Mechelli, A. Dysconnectivity in schizophrenia: Where are we now? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35, 1110–1124, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.004.
[110]
Uhlhaas, P.J. Dysconnectivity, large-scale networks and neuronal dynamics in schizophrenia. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2013, 23, 283–290, doi:10.1016/j.conb.2012.11.004.
[111]
Williamson, P.C.; Allman, J.M. A framework for interpreting functional networks in schizophrenia. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2012, 6, 184.
[112]
Palaniyappan, L.; Liddle, P.F. Does the salience network play a cardinal role in psychosis? An emerging hypothesis of insular dysfunction. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 2012, 37, 17–27.
[113]
Michalopoulou, P.G.; Giampietro, V.P.; Morley, L.A.; Azim, A.; Kapur, S.; Lykouras, L.; Shergill, S.S. The effects of reality distortion syndrome on salient stimuli processing in patients with schizophrenia: An fMRI study. Psychiatry Res. 2010, 183, 93–98, doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.04.010.
Diederen, K.M.; Neggers, S.F.; Daalman, K.; Blom, J.D.; Goekoop, R.; Kahn, R.S.; Sommer, I.E. Deactivation of the parahippocampal gyrus preceding auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167, 427–435, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040456.
[116]
Hoffman, R.E.; Pittman, B.; Constable, R.T.; Bhagwagar, Z.; Hampson, M. Time course of regional brain activity accompanying auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 2011, 198, 277–283, doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.086835.
[117]
Vercammen, A.; Knegtering, H.; den Boer, J.A.; Liemburg, E.J.; Aleman, A. Auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia are associated with reduced functional connectivity of the temporo-parietal area. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 67, 912–918, doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.11.017.
Giraud, A.L.; Kell, C.; Thierfelder, C.; Sterzer, P.; Russ, M.O.; Preibisch, C.; Kleinschmidt, A. Contributions of sensory input, auditory search and verbal comprehension to cortical activity during speech processing. Cereb. Cortex 2004, 14, 247–255.
[120]
Hoffman, R.E.; Fernandez, T.; Pittman, B.; Hampson, M. Elevated functional connectivity along a corticostriatal loop and the mechanism of auditory/verbal hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 69, 407–414, doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.050.
[121]
Hoffman, R.E.; Boutros, N.N.; Berman, R.M.; Roessler, E.; Belger, A.; Krystal, J.H.; Charney, D.S. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietal cortex in three patients reporting hallucinated “voices”. Biol. Psychiatry 1999, 46, 130–132, doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00358-8.
[122]
Tracy, D.K.; O’Daly, O.; Joyce, D.W.; Michalopoulou, P.G.; Basit, B.B.; Dhillon, G.; McLoughlin, D.M.; Shergill, S.S. An evoked auditory response fMRI study of the effects of rTMS on putative avh pathways in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychologia 2010, 48, 270–277, doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.09.013.
[123]
Gromann, P.M.; Tracy, D.K.; Giampietro, V.; Brammer, M.J.; Krabbendam, L.; Shergill, S.S. Examining frontotemporal connectivity and rTMS in healthy controls: Implications for auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 2012, 26, 127–132, doi:10.1037/a0026603.
[124]
Slotema, C.W.; Aleman, A.; Daskalakis, Z.J.; Sommer, I.E. Meta-analysis of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of auditory verbal hallucinations: Update and effects after one month. Schizophr. Res. 2012, 142, 40–45, doi:10.1016/j.schres.2012.08.025.
[125]
Aleman, A.; Sommer, I.E.; Kahn, R.S. Efficacy of slow repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of resistant auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2007, 68, 416–421, doi:10.4088/JCP.v68n0310.
[126]
Freitas, C.; Fregni, F.; Pascual-Leone, A. Meta-analysis of the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2009, 108, 11–24, doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.11.027.
[127]
Slotema, C.W.; Blom, J.D.; Hoek, H.W.; Sommer, I.E. Should we expand the toolbox of psychiatric treatment methods to include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)? A meta-analysis of the efficacy of rTMS in psychiatric disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2010, 71, 873–884.
[128]
Tranulis, C.; Sepehry, A.A.; Galinowski, A.; Stip, E. Should we treat auditory hallucinations with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation? A metaanalysis. Can. J. Psychiatry 2008, 53, 577–586.
[129]
Bassett, D.S.; Bullmore, E.; Verchinski, B.A.; Mattay, V.S.; Weinberger, D.R.; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. Hierarchical organization of human cortical networks in health and schizophrenia. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28, 9239–9248, doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1929-08.2008.
[130]
Lang, F.U.; Kosters, M.; Lang, S.; Becker, T.; Jager, M. Psychopathological long-term outcome of schizophrenia—a review. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2013, 127, 173–182, doi:10.1111/acps.12030.
[131]
Bromet, E.J.; Naz, B.; Fochtmann, L.J.; Carlson, G.A.; Tanenberg-Karant, M. Long-term diagnostic stability and outcome in recent first-episode cohort studies of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2005, 31, 639–649, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbi030.
[132]
Harrison, G.; Hopper, K.; Craig, T.; Laska, E.; Siegel, C.; Wanderling, J.; Dube, K.C.; Ganev, K.; Giel, R.; an der Heiden, W.; et al. Recovery from psychotic illness: A 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. Br. J. Psychiatry 2001, 178, 506–517, doi:10.1192/bjp.178.6.506.
[133]
Averbeck, B.B.; Bobin, T.; Evans, S.; Shergill, S.S. Emotion recognition and oxytocin in patients with schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 2012, 42, 259–266, doi:10.1017/S0033291711001413.
[134]
White, C.; Stirling, J.; Hopkins, R.; Morris, J.; Montague, L.; Tantam, D.; Lewis, S. Predictors of 10-year outcome of first-episode psychosis. Psychol. Med. 2009, 39, 1447–1456, doi:10.1017/S003329170800514X.
[135]
Jaaskelainen, E.; Juola, P.; Hirvonen, N.; McGrath, J.J.; Saha, S.; Isohanni, M.; Veijola, J.; Miettunen, J. A systematic review and meta-analysis of recovery in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2012, doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs130.
[136]
Evensen, J.; Rossberg, J.I.; Barder, H.; Haahr, U.; Hegelstad, W.T.; Joa, I.; Johannessen, J.O.; Larsen, T.K.; Melle, I.; Opjordsmoen, S.; et al. Flat affect and social functioning: A 10 year follow-up study of first episode psychosis patients. Schizophr. Res. 2012, 139, 99–104, doi:10.1016/j.schres.2012.04.019.
[137]
Ten Velden Hegelstad, W.; Haahr, U.; Larsen, T.K.; Auestad, B.; Barder, H.; Evensen, J.; Joa, I.; Johannessen, J.O.; Langeveld, J.; Melle, I.; et al. Early detection, early symptom progression and symptomatic remission after ten years in a first episode of psychosis study. Schizophr. Res. 2013, 143, 337–343, doi:10.1016/j.schres.2012.10.027.
[138]
Goghari, V.M.; Harrow, M.; Grossman, L.S.; Rosen, C. A 20-year multi-follow-up of hallucinations in schizophrenia, other psychotic, and mood disorders. Psychol. Med. 2012, doi:10.1017/S0033291712002206.
