The Role of Sport Involvement and General Self-Worth in the Interplay between Body Dissatisfaction, Worry, and School Disaffection in Preadolescent Boys and Girls
While in recent years there has been increasing research on body dissatisfaction in preadolescence and a small body of research on worry in association with eating disorders, less is known about their effects on school disaffection. Therefore, the current study examined possible gender-specific relations between body dissatisfaction, worry, and school disaffection. To identify possible strategies of intervention and prevention, sport involvement and general self-worth were tested as mediators. Multigroup structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test for the mediating role of sport involvement and general self-worth in the association between body dissatisfaction, worry, and school disaffection in a sample of 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students ( ; ) in elementary schools in Berlin, Germany. The results suggest that promoting feelings of general self-worth could be an effective starting point in decreasing the association between body dissatisfaction, worry, and school disaffection, in both boys and girls. Conversely, sport involvement was identified as a mediating factor for boys only. 1. Introduction A growing number of young boys and girls report feeling dissatisfied with their bodies and having a negative body image and self-judgments which are typically associated with negative emotions, particularly feelings of worry [1–3]. Actually, Sassaroli and colleagues have shown that there is a psychopathological association between worry and eating disorders in clinical samples [4]. As both worry and body dissatisfaction develop, increase, and manifest during adolescence, particularly for girls [1, 5–8], it is critical that preadolescents receive preventive and sustainable health promotion. In addition, school disaffection and a decrease in school achievement are also common in preadolescence for both boys and girls [9]. As Fredrickson’s [10, 11] broaden and build theory postulates, the experience of frequent positive emotions serves to broaden humans’ thoughts and behaviors. Based on this theory, the study of Reschly and colleagues with students from secondary schools has shown that frequent positive emotions during school were associated with higher levels of student engagement and negative emotions with lower levels of engagement [12]. According to Reschly et al. and based on the reverse of Frederickson’s broaden and build theory, the main goal of the present study was to examine if negative emotions and thoughts, specifically worry and body dissatisfaction, are associated with school disaffection in preadolescence considering potential
References
[1]
Y. S. Scattolon and R. M. Nicki, “Worry as an inhibitor of dietary restraint,” Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 25–33, 1991.
[2]
S. Sassaroli and G. M. Ruggiero, “The role of stress in the association between low self-esteem, perfectionism, and worry, and eating disorders,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 135–141, 2005.
[3]
T. A. Wadden, G. Brown, G. D. Foster, and J. R. Linowitz, “Salience of weight-related worries in adolescent males and females,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 407–414, 1991.
[4]
S. Sassaroli, S. Bertelli, M. Decoppi, M. Crosina, G. Milos, and G. M. Ruggiero, “Worry and eating disorders: a psychopathological association,” Eating Behaviors, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 301–307, 2005.
[5]
B. K. Mendelson, M. J. Mendelson, and D. R. White, “Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults,” Journal of Personality Assessment, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 90–106, 2001.
[6]
K. Presnell, S. K. Bearman, and E. Stice, “Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls: a prospective study,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 389–401, 2004.
[7]
E. Stice and K. Whitenton, “Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls: a longitudinal investigation,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 669–678, 2002.
[8]
D. Raufelder, D. Jagenow, and A. Ittel, “Das Zusammenspiel von Mediennutzung, Freizeitverhalten und K？rperzufriedenheit von Jungen und M？dchen in der früh-pubert？ren Entwicklungsphase,” MERZ—Zeitschrift für Medienp？dagogik, vol. 55, pp. 21–34, 2011.
[9]
J. W. Alspaugh, “Achievement loss associated with the transition to middle school and high school,” Journal of Educational Research, vol. 92, no. 1, pp. 20–25, 1998.
[10]
B. L. Fredrickson, “What good are positive emotions?” Review of General Psychology, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 300–319, 1998.
[11]
B. L. Fredrickson, “The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions,” American Psychologist, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 218–226, 2001.
[12]
A. L. Reschly, E. S. Huebner, J. J. Appleton, and S. Antaramian, “Engagement as flourishing: the contribution of positive emotions and coping to adolescents' engagement at school and with learning,” Psychology in the Schools, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 419–431, 2008.
[13]
H. H？lling, R. Schlack, and B. M. Kurth, “Kinder—Familien—Gesundheit: Fakten und Zahlen aus dem bundesweit repr？sentativen Kinder- und Jugendgesundheitssurvey (KIGGS),” in Familienmedizin in Deutschland. Notwendigkeit, Dilemma, Perspektiven, J. Collatz, Ed., pp. 97–131, Pabst Science, Lengerich, Germany, 2010.
[14]
J. L. Derenne and E. V. Beresin, “Body image, media, and eating disorders,” Academic Psychiatry, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 257–261, 2006.
[15]
K. J. Kater, J. Rohwer, and K. Londre, “Evaluation of an upper elementary school program to prevent body image, eating, and weight concerns,” Journal of School Health, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 199–204, 2002.
[16]
L. M. Irving and S. R. Berel, “Comparison of media-literacy programs to strengthen college women's resistance to media images,” Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 103–111, 2001.
[17]
J. I. Hudson, E. Hiripi, H. G. Pope Jr., and R. C. Kessler, “The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 348–358, 2007.
[18]
R. H. Striegel-Moorel and D. L. Franko, “Epidemiology of binge eating disorder,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 34, pp. 19–29, 2003.
[19]
T. D. Wade, A. Keski-Rahkonen, and J. Hudson, “Epidemiology of eating disorders,” in Textbook in Psychiatric Epidemiology, M. Tsuang and M. Tohen, Eds., pp. 343–360, Wiley, New York, NY, USA, 3rd edition, 2011.
[20]
G. D. Rosenblum and M. Lewis, “The relations among body image, physical attractiveness, and body mass in adolescence,” Child Development, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 50–64, 1999.
[21]
S. Fisher, The Development and Structure of Body Image, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1986.
[22]
A. Ittel and K. Drury, “The meaning of media and body issues of girls and boys,” MERZ—Zeitschrift für Medienp？dagogik, vol. 55, pp. 34–46, 2011.
[23]
D. C. Jones, “Body image among adolescent girls and boys: a longitudinal study,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 823–835, 2004.
[24]
M. Kostanski, A. Fisher, and E. Gullone, “Current conceptualisation of body image dissatisfaction: have we got it wrong?” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 1317–1325, 2004.
[25]
H. G. Pope, D. L. Katz, and J. I. Hudson, “Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 male bodybuilders,” Comprehensive Psychiatry, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 406–409, 1993.
[26]
R. Olivardia, H. G. Pope, J. J. Borowiecki, and G. H. Cohane, “Biceps and body image: the relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms,” Psychology of Men and Masculinity, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 112–120, 2004.
[27]
K. A. Phillips and R. D. Crino, “Body dysmorphic disorder,” Current Opinion in Psychiatry, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 113–118, 2001.
[28]
T. C. Pickett, R. J. Lewis, and T. F. Cash, “Men, muscles, and body image: comparisons of competitive bodybuilders, weight trainers, and athletically active controls,” British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 217–222, 2005.
[29]
L. A. Ricciardelli and M. P. McCabe, “Dietary restraint and negative affect as mediators of body dissatisfaction and bulimic behavior in adolescent girls and boys,” Behaviour Research and Therapy, vol. 39, no. 11, pp. 1317–1328, 2001.
[30]
K. C. Wood, J. A. Becker, and J. K. Thompson, “Body image dissatisfaction in preadolescent children,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 85–100, 1996.
[31]
F. Johnson and J. Wardle, “Dietary restraint, body dissatisfaction, and psychological distress: a prospective analysis,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 119–125, 2005.
[32]
D. R. McCreary and D. K. Sasse, “An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls,” Journal of American College Health, vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 297–304, 2000.
[33]
J. M. Seigel, “Body image change and adolescent depressive symptoms,” Journal of Adolescent Research, vol. 17, pp. 27–41, 2002.
[34]
E. Stice and S. K. Bearman, “Body-image and eating disturbances prospectively predict increases in depressive symptoms in adolescent girls: a growth curve analysis,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 597–607, 2000.
[35]
P. K. Keel, J. A. Fulkerson, and G. R. Leon, “Disordered eating precursors in pre- and early adolescent girls and boys,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 203–216, 1997.
[36]
E. Stice, K. Presnell, and D. Spangler, “Risk factors for binge eating onset in adolescent girls: a 2-year prospective investigation,” Health Psychology, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 131–138, 2002.
[37]
G. Cafri, J. K. Thompson, L. Ricciardelli, M. McCabe, L. Smolak, and C. Yesalis, “Pursuit of the muscular ideal: physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors,” Clinical Psychology Review, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 215–239, 2005.
[38]
K. K. Davison, C. N. Markey, and L. L. Birch, “A longitudinal examination of patterns in girls' weight concerns and body dissatisfaction from ages 5 to 9 years,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 320–332, 2003.
[39]
J. A. Harriger, R. M. Calogero, D. C. Witherington, and J. E. Smith, “Body size stereotyping and internalization of the thin ideal in preschool-age girls,” Sex Roles, vol. 63, no. 9-10, pp. 609–620, 2010.
[40]
D. M. McInerney and V. McInerney, Educational Psychology: Constructing Learning, Pearson, Sydney, Australia, 2006.
[41]
D. Neumark-Sztainer, N. Falkner, M. Story, C. Perry, P. J. Hannan, and S. Mulert, “Weight-teasing among adolescents: correlations with weight status and disordered eating behaviors,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 123–131, 2002.
[42]
L. A. Ricciardelli, M. P. McCabe, and S. Banfield, “Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys role of parents, friends, and the media,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 189–197, 2000.
[43]
S. Grogan, Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women, and Children, Routledge, London, UK, 2008.
[44]
R. M. Gardner, B. N. Friedman, and N. A. Jackson, “Body size estimations, body dissatisfaction, and ideal size preferences in children six through thirteen,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 603–618, 1999.
[45]
E. T. Barker and N. L. Galambos, “Body dissatisfaction of adolescent girls and boys: risk and resource factors,” Journal of Early Adolescence, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 141–165, 2003.
[46]
H. E. Shaw, E. Stice, and D. W. Springer, “Perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem in predicting bulimic symptomatology: lack of replication,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 41–47, 2004.
[47]
A. Furnham and A. Calnan, “Eating disturbances, self-esteem, reasons for exercising and body weight dissatisfaction in adolescent males,” European Eating Disorders Review, vol. 6, pp. 58–72, 1998.
[48]
G. H. Cohane and H. G. Pope Jr., “Body image in boys: a review of the literature,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 373–379, 2001.
[49]
L. Ricciardelli and M. P. McCabe, “Pursuit of muscularity among adolescents,” in The Muscular Ideal: Psychological, Social, and Medical Perspectives, J. K. Thompson and G. Cafri, Eds., pp. 199–216, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
[50]
T. D. Borkovec, “The nature, functions, and origins of worry,” in Worrying: Perspectives on Theory, Assessment and Treatment, G. Davey and F. Tallis, Eds., pp. 5–33, Wiley, Chichester, UK, 1994.
[51]
E. R. Watkins, “Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 134, no. 2, pp. 163–206, 2008.
[52]
T. D. Borkovec, W. J. Ray, and J. St？ber, “Worry: a cognitive phenomenon intimately linked to affective, physiological, and interpersonal behavioral processes,” Cognitive Therapy and Research, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 561–576, 1998.
[53]
S. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, USA, 4th edition, 1994.
[54]
T. D. Wade and M. Tiggemann, “The role of perfectionism in body dissatisfaction,” Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 1, article 2, 2013.
[55]
R. W. Connell, “An iron man: the body and some contradictions of hegemonic masculinity,” in Sport, Men and the Gender Order, M. Messner and D. Sabo, Eds., Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Ill, USA, 1990.
[56]
J. P. Connell and J. G. Wellborn, “Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: a motivational analysis of self-system processes,” in Self Processes and Development. The Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology, M. R. Gunnar and L. A. Sroufe, Eds., pp. 43–77, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1991.
[57]
E. A. Skinner and M. J. Belmont, “Motivation in the classroom: reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year,” Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 85, no. 4, pp. 571–581, 1993.
[58]
J. D. Finn, School Engagement and Students at Risk, Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, USA, 1993.
[59]
H. M. Marks, “Student engagement in instructional activity: patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years,” American Educational Research Journal, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 153–184, 2000.
[60]
G. G. Wehlage, R. A. Rutter, G. A. Smith, N. Lesko, and R. R. Fernandez, Reducing the Risk: Schools as Communities of Support, Falmer Press, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 1989.
[61]
J. D. Finn and D. A. Rock, “Academic success among students at risk for school failure,” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 221–234, 1997.
[62]
B. K. Mendelson, D. R. White, and M. J. Mendelson, “Self-esteem and body esteem: effects of gender, age, and weight,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 321–346, 1996.
[63]
M. P. McCabe and L. A. Ricciardelli, “Sociocultural influence's on body image and body changes among adolescent boys and girls,” Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 143, no. 1, pp. 5–26, 2003.
[64]
S. Grogan and H. Richards, “Body image: focus groups with boys and men,” Men and Masculinities, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 219–232, 2002.
[65]
B. Gentile, S. Grabe, B. Dolan-Pascoe, J. M. Twenge, B. E. Wells, and A. Maitino, “Gender differences in domain-specific self-esteem: a meta-analysis,” Review of General Psychology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 34–45, 2009.
[66]
K. C. Kling, J. S. Hyde, C. J. Showers, and B. N. Buswell, “Gender differences in self-esteem: a meta-analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 125, no. 4, pp. 470–500, 1999.
[67]
U. K. Moksnes, I. E. O. Moljord, G. A. Espnes, and D. G. Byrne, “The association between stress and emotional states in adolescents: the role of gender and self-esteem,” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 430–435, 2010.
[68]
K. Tahmassian and N. J. Moghadam, “Relationship between self-efficacy and symptoms of anxiety, depression, worry and social avoidance in a normal sample of students,” Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 91–98, 2011.
[69]
T. Haugen, R. S？fvenbom, and Y. Ommundsen, “Physical activity and global self-worth: the role of physical self-esteem indices and gender,” Mental Health and Physical Activity, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 49–56, 2011.
[70]
A. Steptoe and N. Butler, “Sports participation and emotional wellbeing in adolescents,” The Lancet, vol. 347, no. 9018, pp. 1789–1792, 1996.
[71]
R. Bailey, K. Armour, D. Kirk, M. Jess, I. Pickup, and R. Sandford, “The educational benefits claimed for physical education and school sport: an academic review,” Research Papers in Education, vol. 24, pp. 1–27, 2009.
[72]
S. J. Donaldson and K. R. Ronan, “The efects of sports participation on young adolescents' emotional well-being,” Adolescence, vol. 41, no. 162, pp. 369–389, 2006.
[73]
K. R. Fox, “Self-esteem, self-perceptions and exercise,” International Journal of Sport Psychology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 228–240, 2000.
[74]
K. R. Fox, “The effects of exercise on self-perceptions and self-esteem,” in Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being, S. J. H. Biddle, K. R. Fox, and S. H. Boutcher, Eds., pp. 88–118, Routhledge, London, UK, 2000.
[75]
G. Parfitt, D. Markland, and C. Holmes, “Response to physical exertion in active and inactive males and females,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 16, pp. 178–186, 1994.
[76]
J. Gordon and G. Grant, How We Feel, Jessica Kingsley, London, UK, 1997.
[77]
C. Rothon, P. Edwards, K. Bhui, R. M. Viner, S. Taylor, and S. A. Stansfeld, “Physical activity and depressive symptoms in adolescents: a prospective study,” BMC Medicine, vol. 8, article 32, 2010.
[78]
P. A. Harrison and G. Narayan, “Differences in behavior, psychological factors, and environmental factors associated with participation in school sports and other activities in adolescence,” Journal of School Health, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 113–120, 2003.
[79]
D. Sabo, K. Miller, M. Melnick, and L. Hey, Her Life Depends on It: Sport, Physical ActivIty and the Health and Well-Being of American Girls, Women’s Sports Foundation, East Meadow, NY, USA, 2004.
[80]
D. Sabo, M. Melnick, and B. Vanfossen, The Women’s Sports Foundation Report: Minorities in Sports, Women’s Sports Foundation, East Meadow, NY, USA, 1989.
[81]
M. Pieron, C. Delfosse, and M. Cloes, “Effects of daily physical education programmes on the attitude of elementary school pupils,” in Proceedings of the 10th Commonwealth and International Scientific Congress. Access to Active Living, F. I. Bell and G. H. Ghyn, Eds., pp. 440–444, Victoria, Canadaa, 1994.
[82]
H. W. Marsh and S. Kleitman, “School athletic participation: mostly gain with little pain,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 205–228, 2003.
[83]
McCreary Centre Society, Healthy Youth Development: Highlights from the 2003 Adolescent Health Survey, McCreary Centre Society, Vancouver, Canada, 2004.
[84]
Z. Wang, N. M. Byrne, J. A. Kenardy, and A. P. Hills, “Influences of ethnicity and socioeconomic status on the body dissatisfaction and eating behaviour of Australian children and adolescents,” Eating Behaviors, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 23–33, 2004.
[85]
P. Gibbons, “The relationship between eating disorders and socioeconomic status: it’s not what you think,” Nutrition Noteworthy, vol. 4, no. 1, 2001, http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1k70k3fd.
[86]
D. M. Garner, M. P. Olmstead, and J. Polivy, “Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 15–34, 1983.
[87]
S. Harter, “The perceived self competence scale for children,” Child Development, vol. 53, pp. 87–97, 1982.
[88]
E. Skinner, C. Furrer, G. Marchand, and T. Kindermann, “Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: part of a larger motivational dynamic?” Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 100, no. 4, pp. 765–781, 2008.
[89]
L. K. Muthén and B. O. Muthén, Mplus User's Guide, Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, Calif, USA, 6th edition, 2012.
[90]
K. J. Preacher and A. F. Hayes, “Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models,” Behavior Research Methods, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 879–891, 2008.
[91]
K. J. Preacher and A. F. Hayes, “Contemporary approaches to assessing mediation in communication research,” in The Sage Sourcebook of Advanced Data Analysis Methods for Communication Research, A. F. Hayes, M. D. Slater, L. B. Snyder, A. F. Hayes, M. D. Slater, and L. B. Snyder, Eds., pp. 13–54, Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif, USA, 2008.
[92]
D. P. MacKinnon, Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2008.
[93]
O. Christ and E. Schlüter, Strukturgleichungsmodelle mit Mplus. Eine praktische Einführung, Oldenbourg, München, Germany, 2012.
[94]
C. Geiser, Datenanalyse mit Mplus. Eine anwendungsorientierte Einführung, VS, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1st edition, 2010.
[95]
L. Hu and P. M. Bentler, “Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives,” Structural Equation Modeling, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1–55, 1999.
[96]
L. K. Muthén and B. O. Muthén, Mplus User's Guide, Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, Calif, USA, 6th edition, 1998–2012.
[97]
P. E. Shrout and N. Bolger, “Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and recommendations,” Psychological Methods, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 422–445, 2002.
[98]
A. Satorra and P. M. Bentler, “A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis,” Psychometrika, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 507–514, 2001.
[99]
K. E.-H. Yuan and P. M. Bentler, “On chi-square difference and z-tests in mean and covariance structure analysis when the base model is misspecified,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 64, no. 5, pp. 737–757, 2004.
[100]
M. Barnekow-Bergkvist, G. Hedberg, U. Janlert, and E. Jansson, “Physical activity pattern in men and women at the ages of 16 and 34 and development of physical activity from adolescence to adulthood,” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 359–370, 1996.
[101]
C. Bisegger, B. Cloetta, U. von Rüden, T. Abel, and U. Ravens-Sieberer, “Health-related quality of life: gender differences in childhood and adolescence,” Sozial- und Pr？ventivmedizin, vol. 50, pp. 281–291, 2005.
[102]
P. M. Lewinsohn, M. Lewinsohn, I. H. Gotlib, J. R. Seeley, and N. B. Allen, “Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 107, no. 1, pp. 109–117, 1998.
[103]
E. A. Schur, M. Sanders, and H. Steiner, “Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, vol. 27, pp. 74–82, 2000.
[104]
A. Furnham, N. Badmin, and I. Sneade, “Body image dissatisfaction: gender differences in eating attitudes, self-esteem, and reasons for exercise,” The Journal of psychology, vol. 136, no. 6, pp. 581–596, 2002.
[105]
J. K. Thompson, L. J. Heinberg, M. Altabe, and S. Tantleff-Dunn, Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance, American Psychological Association, Washington DC, USA, 1999.
[106]
S. Gadbois and A. Bowker, “Gender differences in the relationships between extracurricular activities participation, self-description, and domain-specific and general self-esteem,” Sex Roles, vol. 56, pp. 675–689, 2007.
[107]
R. F. Baumeister, J. D. Campbell, J. I. I. Krueger, and K. D. Vohs, “Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?” Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Supplement, vol. 4, supplement 1, pp. 1–44, 2003.
[108]
A. Slater and M. Tiggemann, “‘Uncool to do sport’: a focus group study of adolescent girls' reasons for withdrawing from physical activity,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 619–626, 2010.
[109]
R. E. Luria, “The validity and reliability of the Visual Analogue Mood scale,” Journal of Psychiatric Research, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 51–57, 1975.
[110]
L. Zimmerman, B. Pozehl, K. Duncan, and R. Schmitz, “Effects of music in patients who had chronic cancer pain,” Western Journal of Nursing Research, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 298–309, 1989.
[111]
J. P. Wanous, A. E. Reichers, and M. J. Hudy, “Overall job satisfaction: how good are single-item measures?” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 247–252, 1997.
[112]
D. Chan, “So why ask me? Are self-report data really that bad?” in Statistical and Methodological Myths and Urban Legends, C. E. Lance and R. J. Vandenberg, Eds., pp. 309–336, Routledge, New York, NY, USA, 2009.
[113]
P. E. Spector, “Method variance in organizational research: truth or urban legend?” Organizational Research Methods, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 221–232, 2006.
[114]
A. Boeger, “K？rper und Geschlecht im Jugendalter: Schlaglichter auf eine Entwicklungsaufgabe für beide Geschlechter,” in Handbuch Psychologie und Geschlechterforschung, G. Steins, Ed., pp. 133–151, VS, Wiesbaden, Germany, 2010.
[115]
H. Keery, K. Boutelle, P. van den Berg, and J. K. Thompson, “The impact of appearance-related teasing by family members,” Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 120–127, 2005.
[116]
R. R. Evans, J. Roy, B. F. Geiger, K. A. Werner, and D. Burnett, “Ecological strategies to promote healthy body image among children,” Journal of School Health, vol. 78, no. 7, pp. 359–367, 2008.
