The comparative cytotoxic evaluation of two monomers, diacetone acrylamide (DA) and acrylamide (AA) used in holographic photopolymer formulations, is reported. Two normal cell lines were used: BEAS-2B and HaCaT. Cellular viability was assessed using the MTT assay for three different exposure times. A difference of two orders of magnitude is observed in the lethal dose (LD50) concentrations of the two monomers. Diacetone acrylamide exhibits a significantly lower toxicity profile in comparison to acrylamide at all exposure times. This result justifies the replacement of acrylamide with diacetone acrylamide in the photopolymer formulation, with the view to reducing occupational hazard risks for large-scale holographic device fabrication. A comparative study investigating the holographic recording ability of the two photopolymers in transmission mode showed that the DA photopolymer is capable of reaching refractive index modulation values of , which is 80% of the refractive index modulation achieved by the AA photopolymer. This makes the DA-based photopolymers suitable for a wide range of applications. 1. Introduction Photopolymer materials are widely researched for a variety of holographic applications such as diffractive optics and holographic data storage. One of the most promising new applications in recent years is the development of “smart holograms” for use as biosensors [1–8]. Holographic photopolymers have so far been used in the development of sensors which monitor changes in the relative humidity and temperature of their environment, as well as sensors which respond to the presence of toxic gases such as toluene [9–12]. Acrylamide (AA), a main component of the standard photopolymer composition, is carcinogenic and toxic in its monomer form. This toxicity has been extensively investigated, using both in vivo and in vitro methods [13–19]. An extensive study into the chemical and biochemical safety of AA carried out by Friedman [20] found that AA is involved in reactions with proteins such as haemoglobin, enzymes, and DNA. A recent development has been the replacement of AA with a nontoxic monomer diacetone acrylamide (DA) in the photopolymer composition [21, 22]. This has been done to reduce the potential occupational and environmental hazards involved in future large-scale material development and device fabrication. The new material’s holographic recording capability has already been shown to surpass that of other reported low-toxicity photopolymer alternatives [23–26]. A comparative study into the in vitro cytotoxicity of DA and AA has been
References
[1]
Y. Fuchs, O. Soppera, A. G. Mayes, and K. Haupt, “Holographic molecularly imprinted polymers for label-free chemical sensing,” Advanced Materials, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 566–570, 2013.
[2]
Y. Fuchs, O. Soppera, and K. Haupt, “Photopolymerization and photostructuring of molecularly imprinted polymers for sensor applications—a review,” Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 717, pp. 7–20, 2012.
[3]
S. Kabilan, A. J. Marshall, A. Horgan et al., “‘Smart’ holograms—a novel diagnostics platform,” in Technical Proceedings of the 2006 NSTI Nanotechnology Conference and Trade Show, vol. 3, pp. 467–470, Boston, Mass, USA, May 2006.
[4]
A. J. Marshall, D. S. Young, J. Blyth, S. Kabilan, and C. R. Lowe, “Metabolite-sensitive holographic biosensors,” Analytical Chemistry, vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 1518–1523, 2004.
[5]
D. Bhatta, G. Christie, B. Madrigal-González, J. Blyth, and C. R. Lowe, “Holographic sensors for the detection of bacterial spores,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 520–527, 2007.
[6]
S. Kabilan, A. J. Marshall, F. K. Sartain et al., “Holographic glucose sensors,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1602–1610, 2005.
[7]
X. Yang, X. Pan, J. Blyth, and C. R. Lowe, “Towards the real-time monitoring of glucose in tear fluid: Holographic glucose sensors with reduced interference from lactate and pH,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 899–905, 2008.
[8]
R. B. Millington, A. G. Mayes, J. Blyth, and C. R. Lowe, “A hologram biosensor for proteases,” Sensors and Actuators B, vol. 33, no. 1–3, pp. 55–59, 1996.
[9]
E. Leite, I. Naydenova, S. Mintova, L. Leclercq, and V. Toal, “Photopolymerizable nanocomposites for holographic recording and sensor application,” Applied Optics, vol. 49, no. 19, pp. 3652–3660, 2010.
[10]
I. Naydenova, R. Jallapuram, V. Toal, and S. Martin, “Characterisation of the humidity and temperature responses of a reflection hologram recorded in acrylamide-based photopolymer,” Sensors and Actuators B, vol. 139, no. 1, pp. 35–38, 2009.
[11]
I. Naydenova, S. Martin, and V. Toal, “Photopolymers-beyond the standard approach to photosensitisation,” Journal of the European Optical Society, vol. 4, Article ID 09042, 2009.
[12]
I. Naydenova, R. Jallapuram, V. Toal, and S. Martin, “A visual indication of environmental humidity using a color changing hologram recorded in a self-developing photopolymer,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 92, no. 3, Article ID 031109, 2008.
[13]
X. X. Ma, G. D. Yao, H. Cheng, Q. L. Zeng, and Q. Chen, “Effects of acrylamide on DNA damage in human keratinocytes,” Analytical Chemistry, vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 1518–1523, 2004.
[14]
J. E. Klaunig and L. M. Kamendulis, “Mechanisms of acrylamide induced rodent carcinogenesis,” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 561, pp. 49–62, 2005.
[15]
J. Park, L. M. Kamendulis, M. A. Friedman, and J. E. Klaunig, “Acrylamide-induced cellular transformation,” Toxicological Sciences, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 177–183, 2001.
[16]
G. Lawrence, R. Gentry, T. McDonald et al., “Acrylamide: review of toxicity data and dose-response analyses for cancer and noncancer effects,” Critical Reviews in Toxicology, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 481–608, 2006.
[17]
H. Tsuda, C. S. Shimizu, M. K. Taketomi et al., “Acrylamide; induction of DNA damage, chromosomal aberrations and cell transformation without gene mutations,” Mutagenesis, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 23–29, 1993.
[18]
K. A. Johnson, S. J. Gorzinski, and K. M. Bodner, “Chronic toxicity and oncogenicity study on acrylamide incorporated in the drinking water of Fischer 344 rats,” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 154–168, 1986.
[19]
T. Takahashi, M. Yoshii, T. Kawano, T. Kosaka, and H. Hosoya, “A new approach for the assessment of acrylamide toxicity using a green paramecium,” Toxicology in Vitro, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 99–105, 2005.
[20]
M. Friedman, “Chemistry, biochemistry, and safety of acrylamide. A review,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 51, no. 16, pp. 4504–4526, 2003.
[21]
D. Cody, I. Naydenova, and E. Mihaylova, “New non-toxic holographic photopolymer material,” Journal of Optics, vol. 14, no. 1, Article ID 015601, 2012.
[22]
D. Cody, I. Naydenova, and E. Mihaylova, “Effect of glycerol on a diacetone acrylamide-based holographic photopolymer material,” Applied Optics, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 489–494, 2013.
[23]
M. Ortu？o, E. Fernández, S. Gallego, A. Beléndez, and I. Pascual, “New photopolymer holographic recording material with sustainable design,” Optics Express, vol. 15, no. 19, pp. 12425–12435, 2007.
[24]
S. Gallego, A. Márquez, M. Ortu？o, S. Marini, and J. Francés, “High environmental compatibility photopolymers compared to PVA/AA based materials at zero spatial frequency limit,” Optical Materials, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 531–537, 2011.
[25]
A. Olivares-Perez, M. P. Hernández-Garay, I. Fuentes-Tapia, and J. C. Ibarra-Torres, “Holograms in polyvinyl alcohol photosensitized with CuCl2(2H2O),” Optical Engineering, vol. 50, no. 6, Article ID 065801, 6 pages, 2011.
[26]
M. Ortuno, S. Gallego, A. Marquez, C. Neipp, I. Pascual, and A. Belendez, “Biophotopol: a sustainable photopolymer for holographic data storage applications,” Materials, vol. 5, pp. 772–783, 2012.
[27]
T. Mosmann, “Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays,” Journal of Immunological Methods, vol. 65, no. 1-2, pp. 55–63, 1983.
[28]
D. Hughes and H. Mehmet, Cell Proliferation & Apoptosis, BIOS Scientific, Oxford, UK, 2003.
[29]
S. Martin, P. Leclere, Y. Renotte, V. Toal, and Y. Lion, “Characterisation of an acrylamide-based dry photopolymer holographic recording material,” Optical Engineering, vol. 33, pp. 3942–3946, 1994.
[30]
S. Martin, C. A. Feely, and V. Toal, “Holographic recording characteristics of an acrylamide-based photopolymer,” Applied Optics, vol. 36, no. 23, pp. 5757–5768, 1997.
[31]
M. S. Mahmud, I. Naydenova, T. Babeva, R. Jallapuram, S. Martin, and V. Toal, “Determination of threshold exposure and intensity for recording holograms in thick green-sensitive acrylamide-based photopolymer,” Applied Optics, vol. 49, no. 28, pp. 5276–5283, 2010.
[32]
H. Sherif, I. Naydenova, S. Martin, C. McGinn, and V. Toal, “Characterization of an acrylamide-based photopolymer for data storage utilizing holographic angular multiplexing,” Journal of Optics A, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 255–260, 2005.
[33]
M. Moothanchery, I. Naydenova, and V. Toal, “Study of the shrinkage caused by holographic grating formation in acrylamide based photopolymer film,” Optics Express, vol. 19, no. 14, pp. 13395–13404, 2011.
[34]
H. Kogelnik, “Couple wave theory for thick hologram gratings,” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 48, no. 9, pp. 2909–2947, 1969.
[35]
J. W. Trevan, “Error of determination of toxicity,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 101, no. 712, pp. 483–514, 1927.
[36]
E. Hodgson, A Textbook of Modern Toxicology, 82, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010.
[37]
J. C. Kotz, P. Triechel, and J. R. Townsend, Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Cengage Learning, Stamford, Conn, USA, 2009.
[38]
I. Naydenova, R. Jallapuram, R. Howard, S. Martin, and V. Toal, “Investigation of the diffusion processes in a self-processing acrylamide-based photopolymer system,” Applied Optics, vol. 43, no. 14, pp. 2900–2905, 2004.
