Lack of physical activity has contributed to the nation’s childhood obesity crisis, but the impact of physical activity on self-efficacy as a mediator of behavior change has not been examined. This systematic review (SR) describes the published evidence related to the impact of physical activity intervention programs on self-efficacy among youths. From January 2000 to June 2011, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) standards were used to identify publications from PubMed, PsychInfo, Web of Knowledge, and the Cochran Database of Systematic Reviews. The Cochrane Population, Intervention, Control, Outcome, Study Design (PICOS) approach guided this SR articles selection and evaluation process. Of the 102 publications screened, 10 original studies matched the SR inclusion criteria. The types of physical activity interventions and self-efficacy assessments for these 10 studies were diverse. Of the 10 included articles, 6 articles identified an improvement in post-self-efficacy assessments compared to baseline and 4 showed no effect. In conclusion, physical activity intervention programs may improve self-efficacy in youths. A standardized approach to classify and measure self-efficacy is required. Further research is needed to quantify the association of self-efficacy ratings after completing physical activity interventions with objective health improvements, such as weight loss. 1. Introduction The prevalence of childhood obesity has increased dramatically in the United States (US) the last 20 years. After age gender-based adjustments, more than 30% of US children and adolescents surveyed in 2007-2008 were overweight with a body mass index (BMI) greater than the 85th percentile [1]. Young Americans suffer increasing morbidity from chronic diseases associated with obesity before reaching adulthood [2]. Although the etiology of obesity is multifactorial, weight loss can be achieved by diet and activity behavior modification [3]. In order to sustain weight loss, health behavior modifications must become lifestyle changes. Self-efficacy, a construct of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT), is defined as the belief in one’s own ability to achieve actions necessary to produce a desired effect [4]. It relates to an individual’s confidence in achieving and maintaining behavioral change. Hence, it is reasonable to anticipate that physical activity intervention programs may benefit from incorporating SCT modifications and to evaluate self-efficacy as a component in determining behavioral change. Various types of
References
[1]
C. L. Ogden, M. D. Carroll, B. K. Kit, and K. M. Flegal, “Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010,” The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 307, no. 5, pp. 483–490, 2012.
[2]
S. E. Barlow, “Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report,” Pediatrics, vol. 120, supplement 4, pp. S164–S192, 2007.
[3]
D. Nemet, S. Barkan, Y. Epstein, O. Friedland, G. Kowen, and A. Eliakim, “Short- and long-term beneficial effects of a combined dietary-behavioral-physical activity intervention for the treatment of childhood obesity,” Pediatrics, vol. 115, no. 4, pp. e443–e449, 2005.
[4]
A. Bandura, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, W. H. Freeman, New York, NY, USA, 1997.
[5]
G. J. Ryan and D. A. Dzewaltowski, “Comparing the relationships between different types of self-efficacy and physical activity in youth,” Health Education and Behavior, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 491–504, 2002.
[6]
N. E. Sherwood, W. C. Taylor, M. Treuth et al., “Measurement characteristics of activity-related psychosocial measures in 8- to 10-year-old African-American girls in the girls health enrichment multisite study (GEMS),” Preventive Medicine, vol. 38, supplement, pp. S60–S68, 2004.
[7]
J. J. Annesi, “Initial body mass index and free-time physical activity moderate effects of the youth fit for life treatment in African-American pre-adolescents,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 110, no. 3, pp. 789–800, 2010.
[8]
B. A. Lewis, B. H. Marcus, R. R. Pate, and A. L. Dunn, “Psychosocial mediators of physical activity behavior among adults and children,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 26–35, 2002.
[9]
J. F. Sallis, J. J. Prochaska, and W. C. Taylor, “A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 963–975, 2000.
[10]
E. J. Stone, T. L. McKenzie, G. J. Welk, and M. L. Booth, “Effects of physical activity interventions in youth: review and synthesis,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 298–315, 1998.
[11]
J. Salmon, H. Brown, and C. Hume, “Effects of strategies to promote children's physical activity on potential mediators,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 33, supplement 1, pp. S66–S73, 2009.
[12]
B. Phillips, C. Ball, D. Sackett, D. Badenoch, S. Straus, B. Haynes, et al., “Levels of evidence,” British Journal of Urology International, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 348–348, 2011.
[13]
A. R. Jadad, R. A. Moore, D. Carroll et al., “Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: is blinding necessary?” Controlled Clinical Trials, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 1996.
[14]
J. J. Annesi, “Relations of physical self-concept and self-efficacy with frequency of voluntary physical activity in preadolescents: implications for after-school care programming,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 515–520, 2006.
[15]
J. J. Annesi, A. D. Faigenbaum, W. L. Westcott, and A. E. Smith, “Relations of self-appraisal and mood changes with voluntary physical activity changes in African American preadolescents in an after-school care intervention,” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 260–268, 2008.
[16]
J. J. Annesi, A. D. Faigenbaum, W. L. Westcott, A. E. Smith, J. L. Unruh, and F. G. Hamilton, “Effects of the Youth Fit For Life protocol on physiological, mood, self-appraisal, and voluntary physical activity changes in African American preadolescents: contrasting after-school care and physical education formats,” International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 641–659, 2007.
[17]
R. K. Dishman, R. W. Motl, R. Saunders et al., “Self-efficacy partially mediates the effect of a school-based physical-activity intervention among adolescent girls,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 628–636, 2004.
[18]
M. S. Jamner, D. Spruijt-Metz, S. Bassin, and D. M. Cooper, “A controlled evaluation of a school-based intervention to promote physical activity among sedentary adolescent females: project FAB,” Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 279–289, 2004.
[19]
D. R. Lubans, E. J. Aguiar, and R. Callister, “The effects of free weights and elastic tubing resistance training on physical self-perception in adolescents,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 497–504, 2010.
[20]
J. Stevens, M. Story, K. Ring et al., “The impact of the pathways intervention on psychosocial variables related to diet and physical activity in American Indian schoolchildren,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 37, supplement 1, pp. S70–S79, 2003.
[21]
S. J. M. Verstraete, G. M. Cardon, D. L. R. de Clercq, and I. M. M. de Bourdeaudhuij, “A comprehensive physical activity promotion programme at elementary school: the effects on physical activity, physical fitness and psychosocial correlates of physical activity,” Public Health Nutrition, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 477–484, 2007.
[22]
D. K. Wilson, A. E. Evans, J. Williams, G. Mixon, J. R. Sirard, and R. Pate, “A preliminary test of a student-centered intervention on increasing physical activity in underserved adolescents,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 119–124, 2005.
[23]
D. K. Wilson, R. Friend, N. Teasley, S. Green, I. L. Reaves, and D. A. Sica, “Motivational versus social cognitive interventions for promoting fruit and vegetable intake and physical activity in African American adolescents,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 310–319, 2002.
[24]
R. K. Dishman, R. W. Motl, R. Saunders et al., “Enjoyment mediates effects of a school-based physical-activity intervention,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 478–487, 2005.
[25]
K. R. Allison, J. J. M. Dwyer, and S. Makin, “Self-efficacy and participation in vigorous physical activity by high school students,” Health Education and Behavior, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 12–24, 1999.
[26]
J. J. Annesi, W. L. Westcott, A. D. Faigenbaum, and J. L. Unruh, “Effects of a 12-week physical activity protocol delivered by YMCA after-school counselors (youth fit for life) on fitness and self-efficacy changes in 5–12-year-old boys and girls,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 76, no. 4, pp. 468–476, 2005.
[27]
J. J. Annesi, A. D. Faigenbaum, and W. L. Westcott, “Relations of transtheoretical model stage, self-efficacy, and voluntary physical activity in african American preadolescents,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 81, no. 2, pp. 239–244, 2010.
[28]
J. J. Annesi, “Relations of age with changes in self-efficacy and physical self-concept in preadolescents participating in a physical activity intervention during afterschool care,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 105, no. 1, pp. 221–226, 2007.
[29]
J. J. Annesi, A. D. Faigenbaum, W. L. Westcott, A. E. Smith, and G. Dixon, “Effects of the youth fit for life protocol on physiological factors, mood, self-appraisal, voluntary physical activity, and fruit and vegetable consumption in children enrolled in ymca after-school care,” Journal of Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences, vol. 1, pp. 86–102, 2007.
[30]
J. J. Annesi, J. C. Moore, and G. M. Dixon, “Correlates of changes in voluntary physical activity associated with the youth fit for life intervention during after-school care,” Psychological Reports, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 911–919, 2008.
[31]
J. J. Annesi, G. Tennant, W. L. Westcott, A. D. Faigenbaum, and A. E. Smith, “Effects of the youth fit for life protocol on physiological, psychological, and behavioral factors at ymca calgary after-school care sites,” Psychological Reports, vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 879–895, 2009.
[32]
D. J. Barr-Anderson, D. R. Young, J. F. Sallis et al., “Structured physical activity and psychosocial correlates in middle-school girls,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 404–409, 2007.
[33]
D. J. Barr-Anderson, D. Neumark-Sztainer, K. H. Schmitz et al., “But i like PE: factors associated with enjoyment of physical education class in middle school girls,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 18–27, 2008.
[34]
M. W. Beets, K. H. Pitetti, and L. Forlaw, “The role of self-efficacy and referent specific social support in promoting rural adolescent girls' physical activity,” American Journal of Health Behavior, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 227–237, 2007.
[35]
T. Berry, P. J. Naylor, and J. Wharf-Higgins, “Stages of change in adolescents: an examination of self-efficacy, decisional balance, and reasons for relapse,” Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 452–459, 2005.
[36]
K. N. Boutelle, R. W. Jeffery, and S. A. French, “Predictors of vigorous exercise adoption and maintenance over four years in a community sample,” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, vol. 1, article 13, 2004.
[37]
S. R. Bray, “Self-efficacy for coping with barriers helps students stay physically active during transition to their first year at a university,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 61–70, 2007.
[38]
S. A. Brown, “Measuring perceived benefits and perceived barriers for physical activity,” American Journal of Health Behavior, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 107–116, 2005.
[39]
G. Cardon, R. Philippaerts, J. Lefevre et al., “Physical activity levels in 10- to 11-year-olds: clustering of psychosocial correlates,” Public Health Nutrition, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 896–903, 2005.
[40]
R. A. Carels, L. Darby, H. M. Cacciapaglia et al., “Using motivational interviewing as a supplement to obesity treatment: a stepped-care approach,” Health Psychology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 369–374, 2007.
[41]
K. S. Courneya and E. McAuley, “Are there different determinants of the frequency, intensity, and duration of physical activity?” Behavioral Medicine, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 84–90, 1994.
[42]
I. de Bourdeaudhuij, J. Lefevre, B. Deforche, K. Wijndaele, L. Matton, and R. Philippaerts, “Physical activity and psychosocial correlates in normal weight and overweight 11 to 19 year olds,” Obesity Research, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 1097–1105, 2005.
[43]
B. Deforche, I. de Bourdeaudhuij, A. Tanghe, A. P. Hills, and P. D. Bode, “Changes in physical activity and psychosocial determinants of physical activity in children and adolescents treated for obesity,” Patient Education and Counseling, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 407–415, 2004.
[44]
T. M. Dilorenzo, R. C. Stucky-Ropp, J. S. Vander Wal, and H. J. Gotham, “Determinants of exercise among children. II. A longitudinal analysis,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 470–477, 1998.
[45]
R. K. Dishman, D. P. Hales, J. F. Sallis et al., “Validity of social-cognitive measures for physical activity in middle-school girls,” Journal of Pediatric Psychology, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 72–88, 2010.
[46]
D. A. Dzewaltowski, K. Karteroliotis, G. Welk, J. A. Johnston, D. Nyaronga, and P. A. Estabrooks, “Measurement of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for middle school youth physical activity,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 310–332, 2007.
[47]
D. A. Dzewaltowski, K. S. Geller, R. R. Rosenkranz, and K. Karteroliotis, “Children's self-efficacy and proxy efficacy for after-school physical activity,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 100–106, 2010.
[48]
L. H. Epstein, J. N. Roemmich, F. G. Saad, and E. A. Handley, “The value of sedentary alternatives influences child physical activity choice,” International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 236–242, 2004.
[49]
L. H. Epstein, J. N. Roemmich, R. A. Paluch, and H. A. Raynor, “Physical activity as a substitute for sedentary behavior in youth,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 200–209, 2005.
[50]
K. E. Foster, T. K. Behrens, A. L. Jager, and D. A. Dzewaltowski, “Effect of elimination games on physical activity and psychosocial responses in children,” Journal of Physical Activity and Health, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 475–483, 2010.
[51]
Z. Gao, J. C. Hannon, and X. Yi, “Examining the role of self-efficacy and three types of outcome expectations in weight training,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 105, no. 3 I, pp. 707–713, 2007.
[52]
F. B. Gillison, M. Standage, and S. M. Skevington, “Relationships among adolescents' weight perceptions, exercise goals, exercise motivation, quality of life and leisure-time exercise behaviour: a self-determination theory approach,” Health Education Research, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 836–847, 2006.
[53]
S. L. Gortmaker, L. W. Y. Cheung, K. E. Peterson et al., “Impact of a school-based interdisciplinary intervention on diet and physical activity among urban primary school children: eat well and keep moving,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 153, no. 9, pp. 975–983, 1999.
[54]
H. A. Hausenblas, C. R. Nigg, D. S. Downs, D. S. Fleming, and D. P. Connaughton, “Perceptions of exercise stages, barrier self-efficacy, and decisional balance for middle-level school students,” Journal of Early Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 436–454, 2002.
[55]
C. D. Heitzler, L. A. Lytle, D. J. Erickson, D. Barr-Anderson, J. R. Sirard, and M. Story, “Evaluating a model of youth physical activity,” American Journal of Health Behavior, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 593–606, 2010.
[56]
M. R. Keats, S. N. Culos-Reed, K. S. Courneya, and M. McBride, “Understanding physical activity in adolescent cancer survivors: an application of the theory of planned behavior,” Psycho-Oncology, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 448–457, 2007.
[57]
H. Kitzman-Ulrich, D. K. Wilson, M. L. van Horn, and H. G. Lawman, “Relationship of body mass index and psychosocial factors on physical activity in underserved adolescent boys and girls,” Health Psychology, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 506–513, 2010.
[58]
G. C. Kloek, F. J. van Lenthe, P. W. M. van Nierop, C. T. M. Schrijvers, and J. P. Mackenbach, “Stages of change for moderate-intensity physical activity in deprived neighborhoods,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 325–331, 2006.
[59]
B. H. Kn？pfli, T. Radtke, M. Lehmann et al., “Effects of a multidisciplinary inpatient intervention on body composition, aerobic fitness, and quality of life in severely obese girls and boys,” Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 119–127, 2008.
[60]
J. Kowal and M. S. Fortier, “Motivational determinants of flow: contributions from self-determination theory,” Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 139, no. 3, pp. 355–368, 1999.
[61]
L. A. Lytle, D. M. Murray, K. R. Evenson et al., “Mediators affecting girls' levels of physical activity outside of school: findings from the trial of activity in adolescent girls,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 124–136, 2009.
[62]
J. Maltby and L. Day, “The relationship between exercise motives and psychological well-being,” The Journal of Psychology, vol. 135, no. 6, pp. 651–660, 2001.
[63]
A. J. Martin, D. V. Tipler, H. W. Marsh, C. E. Richards, and M. R. Williams, “Assessing multidimensional physical activity motivation: a construct validity study of high school students,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 171–192, 2006.
[64]
J. J. Martin and N. McCaughtry, “Using social cognitive theory to predict physical activity in inner-city African American school children,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 378–391, 2008.
[65]
S. R. McClaran, “The effectiveness of personal training on changing attitudes towards physical activity,” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 10–14, 2003.
[66]
B. M. Melnyk, L. Small, D. Morrison-Beedy et al., “The COPE healthy lifestyles TEEN program: feasibility, preliminary efficacy, & lessons learned from an after school group intervention with overweight adolescents,” Journal of Pediatric Health Care, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 315–322, 2007.
[67]
T. Mildestvedt and E. Meland, “Examining the “Matthew Effect” on the motivation and ability to make lifestyle changes in 217 heart rehabilitation patients,” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 140–147, 2007.
[68]
A. Moreno Murcia, G. Cervello, and C. Gonzalez-Cutre, “Young atletes motivational profile,” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 172–179, 2007.
[69]
J. A. Moreno, D. González-Cutre, A. Sicilia, and C. M. Spray, “Motivation in the exercise setting: integrating constructs from the approach-avoidance achievement goal framework and self-determination theory,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 542–550, 2010.
[70]
R. W. Motl, R. K. Dishman, R. Saunders, M. Dowda, G. Felton, and R. R. Pate, “Measuring enjoyment of physical activity in adolescent girls,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 110–117, 2001.
[71]
R. W. Motl, R. K. Dishman, D. S. Ward et al., “Comparison of barriers self-efficacy and perceived behavioral control for explaining physical activity across 1 year among adolescent girls,” Health Psychology, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 106–111, 2005.
[72]
E. C. Murru and K. A. M. Ginis, “Imagining the possibilities: the effects of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behavior,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 537–554, 2010.
[73]
A. R. Nicholls, R. Polman, and A. R. Levy, “Coping self-efficacy, pre-competitive anxiety, and subjective performance among athletes,” European Journal of Sport Science, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 97–102, 2010.
[74]
C. R. Nigg and K. S. Courneya, “Transtheoretical model: examining adolescent exercise behavior,” Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 214–224, 1998.
[75]
C. R. Nigg, “Explaining adolescent exercise behavior change: a longitudinal application of the transtheoretical model,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 11–20, 2001.
[76]
G. S. Parcel, B. Simons-Morton, N. M. O'Hara, T. Baranowski, and B. Wilson, “School promotion of healthful diet and physical activity: impact on learning outcomes and self-reported behavior,” Health Education Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 181–199, 1989.
[77]
K. Patrick, J. F. Sallis, J. J. Prochaska et al., “A multicomponent program for nutrition and physical activity change in primary care: PACE+ for adolescents,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 155, no. 8, pp. 940–946, 2001.
[78]
N. J. Pender, O. Bar-Or, B. Wilk, and S. Mitchell, “Self-efficacy and perceived exertion of girls during exercise,” Nursing Research, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 86–91, 2002.
[79]
L. M. Quintiliani, M. K. Campbell, J. M. Bowling, S. Steck, P. S. Haines, and B. M. Devellis, “Results of a randomized trial testing messages tailored to participantselected topics among female college students: physical activity outcomes,” Journal of Physical Activity and Health, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 517–526, 2010.
[80]
L. Raudsepp, R. Viira, and A. Hannus, “Prediction of physical activity intention and behavior in a longitudinal sample of adolescent girls,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 3–18, 2010.
[81]
B. Renner, Y. Spivak, S. Kwon, and R. Schwarzer, “Does age make a difference? Predicting physical activity of South Koreans,” Psychology and Aging, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 482–493, 2007.
[82]
L. B. Robbins, N. J. Pender, D. L. Ronis, A. S. Kazanis, and M. B. Pis, “Physical activity, self-efficacy, and perceived exertion among adolescents,” Research in Nursing and Health, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 435–446, 2004.
[83]
L. B. Robbins, H. C. Talley, T. Y. Wu, and J. Wilbur, “Sixth-grade boys' perceived benefits of and barriers to physical activity and suggestions for increasing physical activity,” Journal of School Nursing, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 65–77, 2010.
[84]
J. N. Roemmich, C. M. Gurgol, and L. H. Epstein, “Influence of an interpersonal laboratory stressor on youths' choice to be physically active,” Obesity Research, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 1080–1087, 2003.
[85]
J. N. Roemmich, C. M. Gurgol, and L. H. Epstein, “Open-loop feedback increases physical activity of youth,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 668–673, 2004.
[86]
D. E. Rosenberg, G. J. Norman, J. F. Sallis, K. J. Calfas, and K. Patrick, “Covariation of adolescent physical activity and dietary behaviors over 12 months,” Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 472–478, 2007.
[87]
R. M. Ryan, C. M. Frederick, D. Lepes, N. Rubio, and K. M. Sheldon, “Intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence,” International Journal of Sport Psychology, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 335–354, 1997.
[88]
G. Ryan and D. Dzewaltowski, “Comparing the relationships between different types of self efficacy and physical activity in youth,” Health Education and Behavior, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 491–504, 2002.
[89]
J. F. Sallis, M. F. Hovell, and C. R. Hofstetter, “Predictors of adoption and maintenance of vigorous physical activity in men and women,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 237–251, 1992.
[90]
J. F. Sallis, W. C. Taylor, J. J. Prochaska, J. O. Hill, and J. C. Geraci, “Correlates of physical activity in a national sample of girls and boys in grades 4 through 12,” Health Psychology, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 410–415, 1999.
[91]
J. Salmon, K. Ball, C. Hume, M. Booth, and D. Crawford, “Outcomes of a group-randomized trial to prevent excess weight gain, reduce screen behaviours and promote physical activity in 10-year-old children: switch-play,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 601–612, 2008.
[92]
S. J. Salvy, J. Wojslawowicz-Bowker, J. N. Roemmich et al., “Peer influence on children's physical activity: an experience sampling study,” Journal of Pediatric Psychology, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 39–49, 2008.
[93]
M. Schneider, G. F. Dunton, and D. M. Cooper, “Physical activity and physical self-concept among sedentary adolescent females: an intervention study,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–14, 2008.
[94]
N. Sherwood, C. Wendell, M. Treuth, L. Klesges, T. Baranowski, A. Zhou, et al., “Measurement characteristics of activity-related psychosocial measures in 8 to 10 year old African-American girls in the girls health enrichment multisite study (GEMS),” Preventative Medicine, vol. 38, supplement, pp. S60–S68, 2004.
[95]
C. A. Shields, K. S. Spink, K. Chad, N. Muhajarine, L. Humbert, and P. Odnokon, “Youth and adolescent physical activity lapsers: examining self-efficacy as a mediator of the relationship between family social influence and physical activity,” Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 121–130, 2008.
[96]
C. A. Shields and L. R. Brawley, “Preferring proxy-agency: impact on self-efficacy for exercise,” Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 904–914, 2006.
[97]
T. L. Shrigley and K. A. Dawson, “Understanding the role of behavior and cognitions in a group exercise setting,” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, vol. 3, pp. 56–61, 2004.
[98]
M. S. Sothern, S. Hunter, R. M. Suskind, R. Brown, J. N. Udall, and U. Blecker, “Motivating the obese child to move: the role of structured exercise in pediatric weight management,” Southern Medical Journal, vol. 92, no. 6, pp. 577–584, 1999.
[99]
E. Stone, T. McKenzie, G. Welk, and M. Booth, “Effects of physical activity interventions in youths: review and synthesis,” American Journal of Preventative Medicine, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 298–315, 1998.
[100]
R. S. Strauss, D. Rodzilsky, G. Burack, and M. Colin, “Psychosocial correlates of physical activity in healthy children,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 155, no. 8, pp. 897–902, 2001.
[101]
R. Y. T. Sung, C. W. Yu, R. C. H. So, P. K. W. Lam, and K. T. Hau, “Self-perception of physical competences in preadolescent overweight Chinese children,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 101–106, 2005.
[102]
I. M. Taylor, N. Ntoumanis, M. Standage, and C. M. Spray, “Motivational predictors of physical education students' effort, exercise intentions, and leisure-time physical activity: a multilevel linear growth analysis,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 99–120, 2010.
[103]
P. Taymoori and D. R. Lubans, “Mediators of behavior change in two tailored physical activity interventions for adolescent girls,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 605–619, 2008.
[104]
P. Taymoori, D. Lubans, and T. R. Berry, “Evaluation of the health promotion model to predict physical activity in iranian adolescent boys,” Health Education and Behavior, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 84–96, 2010.
[105]
J. L. Thompson, S. M. Davis, J. Gittelsohn et al., “Patterns of physical activity among American Indian children: an assessment of barriers and support,” Journal of Community Health, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 423–445, 2001.
[106]
S. G. Trost, R. R. Pate, R. Saunders, D. S. Ward, M. Dowda, and G. Felton, “A prospective study of the determinants of physical activity in rural fifth-grade children,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 257–263, 1997.
[107]
S. G. Trost, R. R. Pate, D. S. Ward, R. Saunders, and W. Riner, “Correlates of objectively measured physical activity in preadolescent youth,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 120–126, 1999.
[108]
R. F. Valois, M. R. Umstattd, K. J. Zullig, and R. J. Paxton, “Physical activity behaviors and emotional self-efficacy: is there a relationship for adolescents?” Journal of School Health, vol. 78, no. 6, pp. 321–327, 2008.
[109]
K. Watson, T. Baranowski, D. Thompson, R. Jago, J. Baranowski, and L. M. Klesges, “Innovative application of a multidimensional item response model in assessing the influence of social desirability on the pseudo-relationship between self-efficacy and behavior,” Health Education Research, vol. 21, pp. 85–97, 2006.
[110]
D. K. Wilson, S. Griffin, R. P. Saunders et al., “Formative evaluation of a motivational intervention for increasing physical activity in underserved youth,” Evaluation and Program Planning, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 260–268, 2006.
[111]
D. K. Wilson, H. Kitzman-Ulrich, J. E. Williams et al., “An overview of “the active by choice today” (ACT) trial for increasing physical activity,” Contemporary Clinical Trials, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 21–31, 2008.
[112]
P. J. Wenthe, K. F. Janz, and S. M. Levy, “Gender similarities and differences in factors associated with adolescent moderate-vigorous physical activity,” Pediatric Exercise Science, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 291–304, 2009.
[113]
P. M. Wright, S. Ding, and W. Li, “Relations of perceived physical self-efficacy and motivational responses toward physical activity by urban high school students,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 101, no. 2, pp. 651–656, 2005.
