Learning theories and their interpretations in management research recognize the role of reflection as a central element in the learning process. There also exists a broad consensus that organizational learning (OL) happens at three intertwined levels of the individual, the group and the organization. This tri-level analysis has been most influentially presented by Crossan, Lane and White (1999), as a premise for their 4I framework of OL. Though the 4I framework builds strongly on existing literature on OL, it does not address the role of reflection as a factor operating between the inputs and outcomes in 4I sub-processes. Though a large body of research exists regarding the notion of reflection and its importance in terms of OL, this has not been discussed in the specific context of the 4I framework. This article contributes to the development of the 4I model by discussing how reflective practice—on three levels and within 4I sub-processes—fuels the OL process. The argumentation is based on an extensive literature review in three dimensions of learning, illustrated with an empirical inquiry into three business organizations and their reflective practice. In addition, the aim is to increase the understanding of reflection as not only an individual or group process, but as an organized practice, enabled by the tools of management control.
References
[1]
Malmi, T.; Brown, D.A. Management control systems as a package: Opportunities, challenges and research directions. Manag. Account. Res. 2008, 19, 287–300, doi:10.1016/j.mar.2008.09.003.
[2]
Boud, D.; Keogh, R.; Walker, D. What is Reflection is Learning? In Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning; Boud, D., Keogh, R., Walker, D., Eds.; Kogan Page: London, UK, 1985; pp. 7–17.
[3]
Dewey, J. Logic: The Theory of Inquiry; Henry Holt and Company: New York, NY, USA, 1938.
[4]
Kegan, R. What “form” Transforms? A Constructive-developmental Approach to Transformative Learning. In Contemporary Theories of Learning: Learning Theorists … In Their Own Words; lleris, K., Ed.; Routledge: Oxon, MD, USA, 2009; pp. 35–52.
[5]
Kolb, D.A. Experiential Learning: Experience as a Source of Learning and Development; Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1984.
[6]
Mezirow, J. An Overview on Transformative Learning. In Contemporary Theories of Learning: Learning Theorists … In Their Own Words; Ileris, K., Ed.; Routledge: Oxon, MD, USA, 2009; pp. 35–52.
[7]
Mezirow, J. A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Educ. 1981, 32, 3–24, doi:10.1177/074171368103200101.
[8]
Sch？n, D.A. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action; Basic Books: New York, NY, USA, 1984.
[9]
Reynolds, M.; Vince, R. Organizing Reflection; Ashgate Pub Limited: Hampshire, England, UK, 2004.
[10]
Crossan, M.; Lane, H.; White, R. An organisational learning framework: From intuition to institution. Acad. Manag. 1999, 24, 522–537.
[11]
Hoyrup, S. Reflection as a core process in organizational learning. J. Workplace Learn. 2004, 16, 442–454, doi:10.1108/13665620410566414.
[12]
Raelin, J.A. Public reflection as the basis of learning. Manag. Learn. 2001, 32, 11–30, doi:10.1177/1350507601321002.
[13]
Chenhall, R.H. Management control systems design within its organizational context: Findings from contingency-based research and directions for the future. Account. Organ. Soc. 2003, 28, 127–168, doi:10.1016/S0361-3682(01)00027-7.
[14]
Simons, R.A. Levers of Control; Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA, USA, 1995.
[15]
Tessier, S.; Otley, D. A conceptual development of Simons’ levers of control framework. Account. Organ. Soc. 2012, 23, 171–185.
[16]
Hopwood, A.G. Accounting and organizational change. Account. Audit. Account. J. 1990, 3, 7–17, doi:10.1108/09513579010145073.
[17]
Simons, R.A. Seven Strategic Questions: A Simple Approach for Better Execution; Harvard Business Review Press: Boston, MA, USA, 2010.
[18]
Crossan, M.M.; Berdrow, I. Organizational learning and strategic renewal. Strat. Manag. J. 2003, 24, 1087–1105, doi:10.1002/smj.342.
[19]
Ecclestone, K. The reflective practitioner: Mantra or a model for emancipation? Stud. Educ. Adults 1996, 28, 146–161.
[20]
Ayas, K.; Zeniuk, N. Project-based learning: Building communities of reflective practitioners. Manag. Learn. 2001, 32, 61–76, doi:10.1177/1350507601321005.
[21]
Argyris, C.; Sch？n, D.A. Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective; Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA, USA, 1978.
[22]
Argyris, C.; Sch？n, D. Organizational Learning II: Theory, Method and Practice; Addison-Wessley: Reading, MA, USA, 1996.
[23]
Elkjaer, B. The learning organization: And undelivered promise. Manag. Learn. 2001, 32, 437–452, doi:10.1177/1350507601324002.
[24]
Eriksen, M. Leading adaptive organizational change: Self-reflexivity and self-transformation. J. Organ. Change Manag. 2008, 21, 622–640, doi:10.1108/09534810810903252.
[25]
Jordan, S. Learning to be surprised: How to foster reflective practice in a high-reliability context. Manag. Learn. 2010, 41, 391–413, doi:10.1177/1350507609357388.
[26]
Sch？n, D.A. Educating the Reflective Practitioner; Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA, USA, 1987.
[27]
Senge, P.M. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization; Doubleday/Currency: New York, NY, USA, 1990.
[28]
Vince, R. Organizing reflection. Manag. Learn. 2002, 33, 63–78, doi:10.1177/1350507602331003.
[29]
Weick, K.E.; Sutcliffe, K.M.; Obstfeld, D. Organizing and the process of sense-making. Organ. Sci. 2005, 16, 409–421, doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0133.
[30]
Greenwood, J. The role of reflection in single and double loop learning. J. Adv. Nurs. 1998, 27, 1048–1053, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1998.t01-1-00579.x.
[31]
Mezirow, J. Learning to Think like an Adult. Core Concepts of Transformation Theory. In Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress; Mezirow, J., Ed.; Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2000; pp. 3–33.
[32]
Page, S.; Meerabeau, L. Achieving change through reflective practice: Closing the loop. Nurse Educ. Today 2000, 20, 365–372, doi:10.1054/nedt.2000.0430. 10895118
[33]
Bontis, N.; Crossan, M.M.; Hulland, J. Managing an organizational learning system by aligning stocks and flows. J. Manag. Stud. 2002, 39, 437–469, doi:10.1111/1467-6486.t01-1-00299.
[34]
Hilden, S.; Tikkam？ki, K.; Suomala, P. Reflection for Renewal. In Proceedings of the OCD—Organizational Change and Development Conference, Bern, Switzerland, 13–14 September 2012.
[35]
Hodgkinson, G.P.; Healey, M.P. Psychological foundations of dynamic capabilities: Reflexion and reflection in strategic management. Strateg. Manag. J. 2011, 32, 1500–1516, doi:10.1002/smj.964.
[36]
Tsang, N.M. Reflection as dialogue. Br. J. Soc. Work 2007, 37, 681–694, doi:10.1093/bjsw/bch304.
Tikkam？ki, K. Ty？n ja organisaation muutoksissa oppiminen—Etnografinen l？yt？retki ty？ss？ oppimiseen. (Learning in Changing Work and Organisational Contexts—Ethnographical Discovery on Workplace Learning.). Ph.D. Dissertation, School of Education, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland, 2006.
[39]
Tikkam？ki, K. Communities of Learning at Work—Making the Invisible Visible. In Paper Presented in the Conference on Researching Work and Learning, Stirling, Scotland, 19-21 June 2013.
[40]
Vince, R. Behind and beyond Kolb’s learning cycle. J. Manag. Educ. 1998, 22, 304–319, doi:10.1177/105256299802200304.
[41]
Jordi, R. Reframing the concept of reflection: Consciousness, experiential learning, and reflective learning practices. Adult Educ. Q. 2011, 61, 181–197, doi:10.1177/0741713610380439.
[42]
Cope, J. Entrepreneurial learning and critical reflection. Discontinuous events as triggers for “higher-level” learning. Manag. Learn. 2003, 34, 429–450, doi:10.1177/1350507603039067.
[43]
Jordan, S.; Messner, M.; Becker, A. Reflection and mindfulness in organizations: Rationales and possibilities for integration. Manag. Learn. 2009, 40, 465, doi:10.1177/1350507609339687.
[44]
Weick, K. The Social Psychology of Organizing; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1979.
[45]
Isaacs, W.I. Dialogue and the Art of Thinking Together; Doubleday: New York, NY, USA, 1999.
[46]
Clouder, L. Reflective practice: Realizing its potential. Physiotherapy 2000, 86, 517–522, doi:10.1016/S0031-9406(05)60985-6.
[47]
Ahrens, T.A.; Chapman, C.S. The structuration of legitimate performance measures and management: Day-to-day contests of accountability in a U.K. restaurant chain. Manag. Account. Res. 2002, 13, 151–171, doi:10.1006/mare.2001.0187.
Berger, P.; Luckmann, T. The Social Construction of Knowledge: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge; Open Road Media: Soho, NY, USA, 1966.
[50]
Barley, S.R.; Tolbert, P.S. Institutionalization and structuration: Studying the links between action and institution. Organ. Stud. 1997, 18, 93–117, doi:10.1177/017084069701800106.
[51]
Burchell, S.; Clubb, C.; Hopwood, A.; Hughes, J.; Nahapiet, J. The roles of accounting in organizations and society. Account. Organ. Soc. 1980, 5, 5–27, doi:10.1016/0361-3682(80)90017-3.
Busco, C.; Riccaboni, A. Performance Measurement Systems and Organizational Culture: Interpreting Processes of Unlearning and Change. In Business Performance Measurement and Management; Taticchi, P., Ed.; Springler-Verlag: Berlin, Heidelberg, Geramny, 2010; pp. 357–376.
[54]
Mouritsen, J.; Hansen, A.; Hansen, C.O. Short and long translations: Management accounting calculations and innovation management. Account. Organ. Soc. 2009, 34, 738–754, doi:10.1016/j.aos.2009.01.006.
[55]
Gherardi, S.; Nicolini, D. The Sociological Foundations of Organizational Learning. In Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge; Dierkes, M., Antal, A.B., Child, J., Nonaka, I., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2001; pp. 35–60.
[56]
Nicolini, D.; Hartley, J.; Stansfield, A.; Hurcombe, J. Through the eyes of others: Using developmental peer reviews to promote reflection and change in organizations. J. Organ. Change Manag. 2011, 24, 211–228, doi:10.1108/09534811111119771.
[57]
Kuntz, J.R.C.; Gomes, J.F.S. Transformational change in organizations: A self-regulation approach. J. Organ. Change Manag. 2012, 25, 143–162, doi:10.1108/09534811211199637.
[58]
Wellington, B. The promise of reflective practice. Educ. Leader. 1991, 48, 4–5.
[59]
Yanow, D.; Willmott, H. Considering passionate humility. Adm. Theory Prax. 1999, 21, 440–454.
[60]
Wesley, P.W.; Buysse, V. Communities of practice: Expanding professional roles to promote reflection and shared inquiry. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 2001, 21, 114, doi:10.1177/027112140102100205.
[61]
Hatton, N.; Smith, D. Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teach. Teach. Educ. 1995, 11, 33–49, doi:10.1016/0742-051X(94)00012-U.
Yanow, D.; Tsoukas, H. What is reflection-in-action? A phenomenological account. J. Manag. Stud. 2009, 46, 1339–1364, doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00859.x.
[64]
Reynolds, M. Reflection and critical reflection in management learning. Manag. Learn. 1998, 29, 183–200, doi:10.1177/1350507698292004.
