Masked Lapwings, Vanellus miles, often come into ‘conflict’ with humans, because they often breed in close proximity to humans and actively defend their ground nests through aggressive behaviour, which typically involves swooping. This study examined whether defensive responses differed when nesting birds were confronted with different human stimuli (‘pedestrian alone’ vs. ‘person pushing a lawn mower’ approaches to nests) and tested the effectiveness of a commonly used deterrent (mock eyes positioned on the top or back of a person’s head) on the defensive response. Masked Lapwings did not swoop closer to a person with a lawn mower compared with a pedestrian, but flushed closer and remained closer to the nest in the presence of a lawn mower. The presence of eye stickers decreased (pedestrians) and increased (lawn mowers) swooping behaviour. Masked Lapwings can discriminate between different human activities and adjust their defensive behaviour accordingly. We also conclude that the use of eye stickers is an effective method to mitigate the human-lapwing ‘conflict’ in some, but not all, circumstances.
References
[1]
Ricklefs, R.E. An Analysis of Nesting Mortality in Birds. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 1969, 9, 1–48, doi:10.5479/si.00810282.9.
[2]
Montgomerie, R.D.; Weatherhead, P.J. Risks and Rewards of Nest Defence by Parent Birds. The Quart. Rev. Biol. 1988, 63, 167–187.
[3]
Trivers, R.L. Parental Investment and Sexual Selection, Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man; Campbell, B., Ed.; Aldine: Chicago, IL, USA, 1972; pp. 139–179.
[4]
Brunton, D. The Effects of Nesting Stage, Sex, and Type of Predator on Parental Defense by Killdeer (Charadrius vociferous): Testing Models of Avian Parental Defense. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1990, 26, 181–190, doi:10.1007/BF00172085.
[5]
Buitron, D. Variability in the Responses of Black-Billed Magpies to Natural Predators. Behaviour 1983, 87, 209–236, doi:10.1163/156853983X00435.
[6]
Galeotti, P.; Tavecchia, G.; Bonetti, A. Parental Defence in Long-eared Owls (Asio otus): Effects of Breeding Stage, Parent Sex and Human Persecution. J. Avian Biol. 2000, 31, 431–440.
[7]
Gottfried, B.M. Anti-Predator Aggression in Birds Nesting in Old Field Habitats: An Experimental Analysis. The Condor 1979, 81, 251–257, doi:10.2307/1367626.
[8]
Jones, D.N.; Thomas, L.K. Attacks on Humans by Australian Magpies: Management of an Extreme Suburban Human-Wildlife Conflict. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 1999, 27, 473–478.
[9]
Warne, R.M.; Jones, D.N. Evidence of Target Specificity in Attacks by Australian Magpies on Humans. Wildlife Res. 2003, 30, 265–267, doi:10.1071/WR01108.
[10]
Jones, D.N.; Nealson, T. Management of Aggressive Australian Magpies by Translocation. Wildlife Res. 2003, 30, 167–177, doi:10.1071/WR01102.
[11]
Wallin, K. Defence as Parental Care in Tawny Owls (Strix aluco). Behaviour 1987, 102, 213–230, doi:10.1163/156853986X00135.
[12]
Kofron, C.P. Attacks to Humans and Domestic Animals by the Southern Cassowary (Casuarius casuarius johnsonii) in Queensland, Australia. J. Zool. 1999, 249, 375–381, doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb01206.x.
[13]
Cilento, N.J.; Jones, D.N. Aggression by Australian Magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) Toward Human Intruders. Emu 1999, 99, 85–90, doi:10.1071/MU99011.
[14]
Buchman, B.; Wilson, M.; Holland, S. Swoop! Available online: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/plants-and-animals/native-plants-and-animals/problem-wildlife/swooping-birds (accessed on 9 August 2013).
[15]
Cardilini, A.P.A. The Effects of Urbanisation on Reproductive Success and Parental Care in the Masked Lapwing (Vanellus miles). Deakin University Unpublished Honours MS: Waurn Ponds, Australia, 2010.
[16]
Marchant, S.; Higgins, P.J. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antartic Birds; Oxford University Press Australia: Melbourne, Australia, 1993; Volume 2.
[17]
Glover, H.K. Deakin University. 2012.
[18]
Glover, H.K.; Weston, M.A.; Maguire, G.S.; Miller, K.K.; Christie, B.A. Towards Ecologically Meaningful and Socially Acceptable Buffers: Response Distances of Shorebirds in Victoria, Australia, to Human Disturbance. Landscape Urban Plan. 2011, 103, 326–334, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.08.006.
[19]
Cardilini, A.P.A.; Weston, M.A.; Nimo, D.G.; Dann, P.; Sherman, C.D.H. Surviving in Sprawling Suburbs: Suburban Environments Represent High Quality Breeding Habitat for a Widespread Shorebird. Landscape Urban Plan. 2013, 115, 72–80, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.04.001.
[20]
Hampel, T. Pesky Plovers. Dealing with Swooping Birds. Available online: http://www.trevorsbirding.com/pesky-plovers-dealing-with-swooping-birds/ (accessed on 9 August 2013).
[21]
Ristau, C.A. Language, Cognition, and Awareness in Animals? Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1983, 406, 170–186, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1983.tb53501.x.
[22]
Bugnyar, T.; St？we, M.; Heinrich, B. Ravens, Corvus corax, Follow Gaze Direction of Humans Around Obstacles. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2004, 271, 1331–1336, doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2738.
[23]
Jones, D.N. Living with a Dangerous Neighbour: Australian Magpies in a Suburban Environment. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Urban Wildlife Conservation, Tucson, AZ, USA, 1–5 May 1999.
[24]
Andersson, M.; Wiklund, C.G.; Rundgren, H. Parental Defence of Offspring: A Model and an Example. Anim. Behav. 1980, 28, 536–542, doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80062-5.
[25]
Arnold, K.E. Group Mobbing Behaviour and Nest Defence in a Cooperatively Breeding Australian Bird. Ethology 2000, 106, 385–393, doi:10.1046/j.1439-0310.2000.00545.x.
[26]
Dann, P. Breeding of the Banded and Masked Lapwings in Southern Victoria. Emu 1981, 81, 121–127, doi:10.1071/MU9810121.
[27]
Thomas, D.G. Breeding Biology of the Australian Spur-winged Plover. Emu 1969, 69, 81–102, doi:10.1071/MU969081.
[28]
Chambers, L.E.; Gibbs, H.; Weston, M.A.; Ehmke, G.C. Spatial and Temporal Variation in the Breeding of Masked Lapwings (Vanellus miles) in Australia. Emu 2008, 108, 115–124, doi:10.1071/MU07064.
[29]
Weston, M.A.; Dodge, F.; Bunce, A.; Nimmo, D.G.; Miller, K.K. Do Temporary Beach Closures Assist in the Conservation of Breeding Shorebirds on Recreational Beaches? Pac. Conserv. Biol. 2012, 18, 47–55.
[30]
Liebezeit, J.R.; Smith, P.A.; Lanctot, R.B.; Schekkerman, H.; Tulp, I.; Kendall, S.J.; Tracy, D.M.; Rodrigues, R.J.; Meltofte, H.; Robinson, J.A.; Gratto-Trevor, C.; McCaffery, B.J.; Morse, J.; Zack, S.W. Assessing the Development of Shorebird Eggs Using the Floatation Method: Spesies-specific and Generalized Regression Models. The Condor 2007, 109, 32–47, doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2007)109[32:ATDOSE]2.0.CO;2.
[31]
Székely, T.; Kosztolányi, A.; Küpper, C. Practical Guide for Investigating Breeding Ecology of Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus); University of Bath: Bath, UK, 2008; Volume 3.
[32]
Lees, D.; Weston, M.A.; Sherman, C.; Maguire, G.; Dann, P.; Cardilini, A.P.; Tan, L. Occurrences of Cooperative Breeding in the Masked Lapwing Vanellus miles. The Victorian Naturalist 2013, 130, 84–85.
[33]
Giles, N.; Huntingford, F.A. Predation Risk and Inter-population Variation in Antipredator Behaviour in the Three-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus. Anim. Behav. 1984, 32, 264–275, doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(84)80346-2.
[34]
Huntingford, F.A. An Investigation of the Territorial Behaviour of the Three-spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Using Principal Components Analysis. Anim. Behav. 1976, 24, 822–834, doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(76)80013-9.
[35]
SPSS, SPSS Stastics. 20.0, SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA, 2011.
[36]
Lord, A.; Waas, J.R.; Innes, J.; Whittingham, M.J. Effects of Human Approaches to Nests of Northern New Zealand Dotterels. Biol. Conserv. 2001, 98, 233–240, doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00158-0.
[37]
Marzluff, J.M.; Walls, J.; Cornell, H.N.; Withey, J.C.; Craig, D.P. Lasting Recognition of Threatening People by Wild American Crows. Anim. Behav. 2010, 79, 699–707, doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.12.022.
[38]
Stankowich, T.; Blumstein, D.T. Fear in Animals: A Meta-analysis and Review of Risk Assessment. Proc. Roy. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2005, 272, 2627–2634, doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3251.
M？ller, A.P. Flight Distance of Urban Birds, Predation, and Selection for Urban Life. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2008, 63, 63–75, doi:10.1007/s00265-008-0636-y.
[42]
Brunton, D. Fatal Antipredator Behavior of a Killdeer. Wilson Bull. 1986, 98, 605–607.
[43]
Sordhal, T.A. Evolutionary Aspects of Avian Distraction Display: Variation in American Avocet and Black-necked Stilt Antipredator Behaviour. In Deception: Perspectives on Human and Nonhuman Deceit; Mitchell, R.W., Ed.; SUNY Press: Albany, NY, USA, 1986; pp. 87–107.
