Nanoparticles have been investigated as drug carriers, because they provide a great opportunity due to their advantageous features: (i) various formulations using organic/inorganic materials, (ii) easy modification of targeting molecules, drugs or other molecules on them, (iii) effective delivery to target sites, resulting in high therapeutic efficacy and (iv) controlling drug release by external/internal stimuli. Because of these features, therapeutic efficacy can be improved and unwanted side effects can be reduced. Theranostic nanoparticles have been developed by incorporating imaging agents in drug carriers as all-in-one system, which makes it possible to diagnose and treat cancer by monitoring drug delivery behavior simultaneously. Recently, stimuli-responsive, activatable nanomaterials are being applied that are capable of producing chemical or physical changes by external stimuli. By using these nanoparticles, multiple tasks can be carried out simultaneously, e.g., early and accurate diagnosis, efficient cataloguing of patient groups of personalized therapy and real-time monitoring of disease progress. In this paper, we describe various types of nanoparticles for drug delivery systems, as well as theranostic systems.
References
[1]
Kreuter, J. Nanoparticles—A hsitorical perspective. Int. J. Pharm. 2007, 331, 1–10, doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.10.021.
[2]
Duncan, R. Polymer conjugates as anticancer nanomedicines. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2006, 6, 688–791.
[3]
Lobatto, M.E.; Fuster, V.; Fayad, Z.A.; Mulder, W.J.M. Perspectives and opportunities for nanomedicine in the management of atherosclerosis. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2011, 10, 835–852.
[4]
Mitragotri, S.; Lahann, J. Physical approaches to biomaterial design. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 15–23, doi:10.1038/nmat2344.
[5]
Minchinton, A.I.; Tannock, I.F. Drug penetration in solid tumours. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2006, 583–592, doi:10.1038/nrc1893.
[6]
Allen, T.M. Ligand-targeted therapeutics in anticancer therapy. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2002, 2, 750–763, doi:10.1038/nrc903.
[7]
Davis, M.E.; Chen, Z.; Shin, D.M. Nanoparticle therapeutics: An emerging treatment modality for cancer. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2008, 8, 771–782, doi:10.1038/nrd2614.
[8]
Haag, R. Supramolecular drug-delivery systems based on polymeric core–shell architectures. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2004, 43, 278–282, doi:10.1002/anie.200301694.
[9]
Veronese, F.M.; Schiavon, O.; Pasut, G.; Mendichi, R.; Andersson, L.; Tsirk, A.; Ford, J.; Wu, G.; Kneller, S.; Davies, J.; et al. PEG-doxorubicin conjugates: Influence of polymer structure on drug release, in vitro cytotoxicity, biodistribution, and antitumor activity. Bioconjugate Chem. 2005, 16, 775–784, doi:10.1021/bc040241m.
[10]
Acharya, S.; Sahoo, S.K. PLGA nanoparticles containing various anticancer agents and tumour delivery by EPR effect. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2011, 63, 170–183, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2010.10.008.
[11]
Hyung, W.; Ko, H.; Park, J.; Lim, E.; Park, S.B.; Park, Y.; Yoon, H.G.; Suh, J.S.; Haam, S.; Huh, Y. Novel hyaluronic acid (HA) coated drug carriers (HCDCs) for human breast cancer treatment. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2008, 99, 422–454.
[12]
Jung, S.W.; Jeong, Y.I.; Kim, Y.H.; Choi, K.C.; Kim, S.H. Drug release from core-shell type nanoparticles of poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide)-grafted dextran. J. Microencapsul. 2005, 22, 901–911, doi:10.1080/02652040500286060.
[13]
Chung, Y.; Kim, J.C.; Kim, Y.H.; Tae, G.; Lee, S.; Kim, K.; Kwon, I.C. The effect of surface functionalization of PLGA nanoparticles by heparin- or chitosan-conjugated Pluronic on tumor targeting. J. Control. Release 2010, 10, 374–382.
[14]
Lim, E.; Huh, Y.; Yang, J.; Lee, K.; Suh, J.; Haam, S. pH-triggered drug-releasing magnetic nanoparticles for cancer therapy guided by molecular imaging by MRI. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 2436–2442, doi:10.1002/adma.201100351.
[15]
Miele, E.; Spinelli, G.P.; Miele, E.; Tomao, F.; Tomao, S. Albumin-bound formulation of paclitaxel (Abraxane？ ABI-007) in the treatment of breast cancer. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2009, 4, 99–105.
[16]
Micha, J.P.; Goldstein, B.H.; Birk, C.L.; Rettenmaier, M.A.; Brown, J.V., III. Abraxane in the treatment of ovarian cancer: The absence of hypersensitivity reactions. Gynecol. Oncol. 2006, 100, 437–438, doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2005.09.012.
[17]
Green, M.R.; Manikhas, G.M.; Orlov, S.; Afanasyev, B.; Makhson, A.M.; Bhar, P.; Hawkins, M.J. Abraxane？, a novel Cremophor？—Free, albumin-bound particle form of paclitaxel for the treatment of advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. Ann. Oncol. 2006, 17, 1263–1268, doi:10.1093/annonc/mdl104.
Tanner, P.; Baumann, P.; Enea, R.; Onaca, O.; Palivan, C.; Meier, W. Polymeric vesicles: From drug carriers to nanoreactors and artificial organelles. Acc. Chem. Res. 2011, 44, 1039–1049, doi:10.1021/ar200036k.
[20]
Dhanikula, A.B.; Panchagnula, R. Preparation and characterization of water-soluble prodrug, liposomes and micelles of paclitaxel. Curr. Drug Deliv. 2005, 2, 75–91, doi:10.2174/1567201052772861.
[21]
Levine, D.H.; Ghoroghchian, P.P.; Freudenberg, J.; Zhang, G.; Therien, M.J.; Greene, M.I.; Hammer, D.A.; Murali, R. Polymersomes: A new multi-functional tool for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Methods 2008, 46, 25–32, doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2008.05.006.
[22]
Chang, H.-I.; Yeh, M.-K. Clinical development of liposome-based drugs: Formulation, characterization, and therapeutic efficacy. Int. J. Nanomed. 2012, 7, 49–60.
[23]
Haley, B.; Frenkel, E. Nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer treatment. Urol. Oncol. Semin. Orig. Investig. 2008, 26, 57–64, doi:10.1016/j.urolonc.2007.03.015.
[24]
Chacko, R.T.; Ventura, J.; Zhuang, J.; Thayumanavan, S. Polymer nanogels: A versatile nanoscopic drug delivery platform. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2012, 64, 836–851, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2012.02.002.
Zhang, L.; Liu, W.; Lin, L.; Chen, D.; Stenzel, M.H. Degradable disulfide core-cross-linked micelles as a drug delivery system prepared from vinyl functionalized nucleosides via the RAFT process. Biomacromolecules 2008, 9, 3321–3331, doi:10.1021/bm800867n.
[27]
Mühlen, A.Z.; Schwarz, C.; Mehnert, W. Slid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for controlled drug delivery—Drug release and release mechanism. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 1998, 45, 149–155, doi:10.1016/S0939-6411(97)00150-1.
[28]
Almeida, A.J.; Souto, E. Solid lipid nanoparticles as a drug delivery system for peptides and proteins. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2007, 57, 478–490, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2007.04.007.
[29]
Wissing, S.A.; Kayse, O.; Müller, R.H. Solid lipid nanoparticles for parenteral drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2004, 56, 1257–1272, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2003.12.002.
[30]
Blasi, P.; Giovagnoli, S.; Schoubben, A.; Ricci, M.; Rossi, C. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted brain drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2007, 59, 454–477, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2007.04.011.
[31]
Jenning, V.; Thünemann, A.F.; Gohla, S.H. Characterisation of a novel solid lipid nanoparticle carrier system based on binary mixtures of liquid and solid lipids. Int. J. Pharm. 2000, 199, 167–177, doi:10.1016/S0378-5173(00)00378-1.
[32]
Schwarz, C.; Mehnert, W. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for controlled drug delivery II. Drug incorporation and physicochemical characterization. J. Microencapsul. 1999, 16, 205–213, doi:10.1080/026520499289185.
[33]
Kang, K.W.; Chun, M.-K.; Lim, O.; Subedi, R.K.; Ahn, S.-G.; Yoon, J.-H.; Choi, H.-K. Doxorubicin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles to overcome multidrug resistance in cancer therapy. Nanomedicine 2010, 6, 210–213, doi:10.1016/j.nano.2009.12.006.
Duncan, B.; Kim, C.; Rotello, V.M. Gold nanoparticle platforms as drug and biomacromolecule delivery systems. J. Control. Release 2010, 148, 122–127, doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.06.004.
Ghosh, P.S.; Kim, C.K.; Han, G.; Forbes, N.S.; Rotello, V.M. Efficient gene delivery vectors by tuning the surface charge density of amino acid-functionalized gold nanoparticles. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 2213–2218, doi:10.1021/nn800507t.
[40]
Kim, C.K.; Ghosh, P.; Pagliuca, C.; Zhu, Z.J.; Menichetti, S.; Rotello, V.M. Entrapment of hydrophobic drugs in nanoparticle monolayers with efficient release into cancer cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 1360–1361.
[41]
Serizawa, T.; Hirai, Y.; Aizawa, M. Novel synthetic route to peptide-capped gold nanoparticles. Langmuir 2009, 25, 12229–12234, doi:10.1021/la9021799.
[42]
Abad, J.M.; Mertens, S.F.L.; Pita, M.; Fernandez, V.M.; Schiffrin, D.J. Functionalization of thioctic acid-capped gold nanoparticles for specific immobilization of histidine-tagged proteins. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 5689–5694.
[43]
Tang, F.; Li, L.; Chen, D. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Synthesis, biocompatibility and drug delivery. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 1504–1534, doi:10.1002/adma.201104763.
[44]
Vallet-Regi, M.; Balas, F.; Arcos, D. Mesoporous materials for drug delivery. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 7548–7558, doi:10.1002/anie.200604488.
[45]
Andersson, J.; Rosenholm, J.; Areva, S.; Linden, M. Influences of material characteristics on ibuprofen drug loading and release profiles from ordered micro- and mesoporous silica matrices. Chem. Mater. 2004, 16, 4160–4167, doi:10.1021/cm0401490.
[46]
Yanes, R.E.; Tamanoi, F. Development og mesoporous silica nanomaterials as a vehicle for anticancer drug delivery. Ther. Deliv. 2012, 3, 389–404, doi:10.4155/tde.12.9.
[47]
Lu, J.; Liong, M.; Li, Z.; Zink, J.I.; Tamanoi, F. Biocompatibility, biodistribution, and drug-delivery efficiency of mesoposrous silica nanoparticles for cancer therapy in animals. Small 2010, 6, 1794–1805, doi:10.1002/smll.201000538.
[48]
Vivero-Escoto, J.L.; Slowing, I.I.; Trewyn, B.G.; Lin, V.S.-Y. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles for intracellular controlled drug delivery. Small 2010, 6, 1952–1967, doi:10.1002/smll.200901789.
[49]
Ambrogio, M.W.; Thomas, C.R.; Zhao, Y.-L.; Zink, J.I.; Stoddart, J.F. Mechanized silica nanoparticles: A new frontier in theranostic nanomedicine. Acc. Chem. Res. 2011, 44, 903–913.
[50]
Park, J.H.; Gu, L.; Maltzahn, G.; Ruoslahti, E.; Nhatia, S.N.; Sailor, M.J. Biodegradable luminescent porous silicon nanoparticles for in vivo applications. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 331–336, doi:10.1038/nmat2398.
[51]
Khanal, A.; Inoue, Y.; Yada, M.; Nakashima, K. Synthesis of silica hollow nanoparticles templated by polymeric micelle with core-shell-corona structure. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 1534–1535, doi:10.1021/ja0684904.
[52]
Yang, J.; Lee, J.; Kang, J.; Lee, K.; Suh, J.; Yoon, H.; Huh, Y.; Haam, S. Hollow silica nanocontainers as drug delivery vehicles. Langmuir 2008, 24, 3417–3421.
[53]
Yang, J.; Lind, J.U.; Trogler, W.C. Synthesis of hollow silica and titania nanospheres. Chem. Mater. 2008, 20, 2875–2877, doi:10.1021/cm703264y.
[54]
Yavuz, M.S.; Cheng, Y.; Chen, J.; Cobley, C.M.; Zhang, Q.; Rycenga, M.; Xie, J.; Kime, C.; Song, K.H.; Schwartz, A.G.; et al. Gold nanocages covered by smart polymers for controlled release with near-infrared light. N. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 935–939.
[55]
Adeli, M.; Kalantari, M.; Parsamanesh, M.; Sadeghi, E.; Mahmoudi, M. Synthesis of new hybrid nanomaterials: Promising systems for cancer therapy. Nanomed. Nanotech. Biol. Med. 2011, 7, 806–817, doi:10.1016/j.nano.2011.02.006.
[56]
Yang, J.; Lee, J.; Kang, J.; Oh, S.J.; Ko, H.; Son, J.; Lee, K.; Suh, J.; Huh, Y.; Haam, S. Smart drug-loaded polymer gold nanoshells for systemic and localized therapy of human epithelial cancer. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 4339–4342, doi:10.1002/adma.200900334.
[57]
Chen, A.M.; Zhang, M.; Wei, D.; Stueber, D.; Taratula, O.; Minko, T.; He, H. Co-delivery of doxorubicin and Bcl-2 siRNA by mesoporous silica nanoparticles enhances the efficacy of chemotherapy in multidrug-resistant cancer cells. Small 2009, 5, 2673–2677.
[58]
Pasut, G.; Veronese, F.M. PEG conjugates in clinical development or use as anticancer agents: An overview. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2009, 61, 1177–1188, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2009.02.010.
[59]
Veronese, F.M.; Pasut, G. PEGylation, successful approach to drug delivery. Drug Discov. Today 2005, 10, 1451–1458, doi:10.1016/S1359-6446(05)03575-0.
[60]
Torchilin, V. Tumor delivery of macromolecular drugs based on the EPR effect. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2011, 63, 131–135, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2010.03.011.
[61]
Fang, J.; Nakamura, H.; Maeda, H. The EPR effect: Unique features of tumor blood vessels for drug delivery, factors involved, and limitations and augmentation of the effect. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2011, 63, 136–151, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2010.04.009.
[62]
Maruyama, K. Intracellular targeting delivery of liposomal drugs to solid tumors based on EPR effects. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2011, 63, 161–169, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2010.09.003.
[63]
Knop, K.; Hoogenboom, R.; Fischer, D.; Schubert, U.S. Poly(ethylene glycol) in drug delivery: Pros and cons as well as potential alternatives. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2010, 9, 6288–6308.
[64]
Yang, J.; Park, S.-G.; Yoon, H.G.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Preparation of poly ε-caprolactone nanoparticles containing magnetite for magnetic drug carrier. Int. J. Pharm. 2006, 324, 185–190, doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.06.029.
[65]
Kim, E.; Jung, Y.; Choi, H.; Yang, J.; Suh, J.-S.; Huh, Y.-M.; Kim, K.; Haam, S. Prostate cancer cell death produced by the co-delivery of Bcl-xL shRNA and doxorubicin using an aptamer-conjugated polplex. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 4592–4599, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.02.030.
[66]
Yang, J.; Lee, C.-H.; Park, J.; Seo, S.; Lim, E.-K.; Song, Y.J.; Suh, J.-S.; Yoon, H.-G.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Antibody conjugated magnetic PLGA nanoparticles for diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. J. Mater. Chem. 2007, 17, 2695–2699.
[67]
Koevit, M.F.; Zhang, M. Cancer nanotheranostics: Improving imaging and therapy by targeted delivery across biological barriers. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, H217–H247, doi:10.1002/adma.201102313.
[68]
Sun, C.; Lee, J.S.H.; Zhang, M. Magnetic nanoparticles in MR imaging and drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2008, 60, 1252–1265, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2008.03.018.
[69]
Choi, J.; Yang, J.; Jang, E.; Suh, J.-S.; Huh, Y.-M.; Lee, K.; Haam, S. Gold nanostructures as photothermal therapy agent for cancer. Anticancer Agents. Med. Chem. 2011, 11, 953–964.
[70]
Yang, J.; Lee, C.-H.; Ko, H.-J.; Suh, J.-S.; Yoon, H.-G.; Lee, K.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Multifunctional magneto-polymeric nanohybrids for targeted detection and synergistic therapeutic effects on breast cancer. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 8836–8839.
[71]
Manish, C.; Vimukta, S. Targeted drug delivery system: A review. Res. J. Chem. Sci. 2011, 1, 135–138.
[72]
Andreani, T.; Doktorovová, S.; Lopes, C.M.; Souto, E.B. Nanobiotechnology approaches for targeteddelivery of pharmaceutics and cosmetics ingredients. Int. J. Nanotechnol. 2011, 8, 66–77.
[73]
Ruoslahti, E.; Bhatia, S.N.; Sailor, M.J. Targeting of drugs and nanoparticles to tumors. J. Cell Biol. 2010, 188, 759–768, doi:10.1083/jcb.200910104.
[74]
Yang, J.; Cho, E.-J.; Seo, S.; Lee, J.-W.; Yoon, H.-G.; Suh, J.-S.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Enhancement of cellular binding efficiency and cytotoxicity using polyethylene glycol base triblock copolymeric nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2008, 84, 273–280.
[75]
Choi, K.Y.; Jeon, E.J.; Yoon, H.Y.; Lee, B.S.; Na, J.H.; Min, J.H.; Kim, S.Y.; Myung, S.-J.; Chen, X.; Kwon, I.C.; et al. Theranostic nanoparticles based on PEGylated hyaluronic acid for the diagnosis, therapy and monitoring of colon cancer. Biomaterials 2012, 33, 6186–6193, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.05.029.
[76]
Ruoslahti, E. The RGD story: A personal account. Matrix Biol. 2003, 22, 459–465, doi:10.1016/S0945-053X(03)00083-0.
Ruoslahti, E. Specialization of tumour vasculature. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2002, 2, 83–90, doi:10.1038/nrc724.
[79]
Choi, J.; Yang, J.; Park, J.; Kim, E.; Suh, J.-S.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Specific near-IR absorption imaging of glioblastomas using integrin-targeting gold nanorods. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2011, 21, 1082–1088, doi:10.1002/adfm.201002253.
[80]
Ren, Y.; Cheung, H.W.; von Maltzhan, G.; Agrawal, A.; Cowley, G.S.; Weir, B.A.; Boehm, J.S.; Tamayo, P.; Karst, A.M.; Liu, J.F.; et al. Targeted tumor-penetrating siRNA nanocomplexes for credentialing the ovarian cancer oncogene ID4. Sci. Transl. Med. 2012, 15, 147ra112.
[81]
Sugahara, K.N.; Teesalu, T.; Karmali, P.P.; Kotamraju, V.R.; Agemy, L.; Girard, O.M.; Hanahan, D.; Mattrey, R.F.; Ruoslahti, E. Tissue-penetrating delivery of compounds and nanoparticles into tumors. Cancer Cell 2009, 16, 510–520, doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2009.10.013.
[82]
Lim, Y.-B.; Kwon, O.-J.; Lee, E.; Kim, P.-H.; Yun, C.-O.; Lee, M. A cyclicRGD-coated peptide nanoribbon as a selective intracellular nanocarrier. Org. Biomol. Chem. 2008, 6, 1944–1948, doi:10.1039/b802470g.
[83]
Flanagan, P.A.; Duncan, R.; Subr, V.; Ulbrich, K.; Kopeckov, P.; Kopecek, J. Evaluation of protein-N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide copolymer conjugates as targetable drug-carriers. 2. Body distribution of conjugates containing transferrin, antitransferrin receptor antibody or anti-Thy 1.2 antibody and effectiveness of transferrin-containing daunomycin conjugates against mouse L1210 leukaemia in vivo. J. Contr. Release 1992, 18, 25–30, doi:10.1016/0168-3659(92)90208-9.
[84]
Li, J.-L.; Wang, L.; Liu, X.-Y.; Zhang, Z.-P.; Guo, H.-C.; Liu, W.-M.; Tang, S.-H. In vitro cancer cell imaging and therapy using transferrin-conjugated gold nanoparticles. Cancer Lett. 2009, 274, 319–326, doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2008.09.024.
[85]
Li, H.; Qian, Z.M. Transferrin/transferrin receptor-mediated drug delivery. Med Res Rev. 2002, 22, 225–250, doi:10.1002/med.10008.
[86]
Seo, S.-B.; Yang, J.; Hyung, W.; Cho, E.-J.; Lee, T.-I.; Song, Y.J.; Yoon, H.-G.; Suh, J.-S.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Novel multifunctional PHDCA/PEI nano-drug carriers for simultaneous magnetically targeted cancer therapy and diagnosis via magnetic resonance imaging. Nanotechnology 2007, 18, 475105, doi:10.1088/0957-4484/18/47/475105.
[87]
Kim, H.-J.; Ahn, J.-E.; Haam, S.; Shul, Y.-G.; Song, S.-Y.; Tatsumi, T. Synthesis and characterization of mesoporous Fe/SiO2 for magnetic drug targeting. J. Mater. Chem. 2006, 16, 1617–1621, doi:10.1039/b514433g.
[88]
Gang, J.; Park, S.-B.; Hyung, W.; Choi, E.H.; Wen, J.; Kim, H.-S.; Shul, Y.-G.; Haam, S.; Song, S.Y. Magnetic poly ε-caprolactone nanoparticles containing Fe3O4 and gemcitabine enhance anti-tumor effect in pancreatic cancer xenograft mouse model. J. Drug Target. 2007, 15, 445–453, doi:10.1080/10611860701453901.
[89]
Agasti, S.S.; Chompoosor, A.; You, C.-C.; Ghosh, P.; Kim, C.K.; Rotello, V.M. Photoregulated release of caged anticancer drugs from gold nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 5728–5729.
Vivero-Escoto, J.L.; Slowing, I.I.; Wu, C.-W.; Lin, V.S.-Y. Photoinduced intracellular controlled release drug delivery in human cells by gold-capped mesoporous silica nanosphere. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 3462–3463, doi:10.1021/ja900025f.
[92]
Han, G.; You, C.-C.; Kim, B.-J.; Turingan, R.S.; Forbes, N.S.; Martin, C.T.; Rotello, V.M. Light-regulated release of DNA and its delivery to nuclei by means of photolabile gold nanoparticles. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 118, 3237–3241, doi:10.1002/ange.200600214.
[93]
Lu, J.; Choi, E.; Tamanoi, F.; Zink, J.I. Light-activated nanoimpeller-controlled drug release in cancer cells. Small 2008, 4, 421–426, doi:10.1002/smll.200700903.
[94]
Gary-Bobo, M.; Mir, Y.; Rouxel, C.; Brevet, D.; Hocine, O.; Maynadier, M.; Gallud, A.; da Silva, A.; Mongin, O.; Blanchard-Desce, M.; et al. Multifunctionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles for the in vitro treatment of retinoblastoma: Drug delivery, one and two-photon photodynamic therapy. Int. J. Pharm. 2012, 432, 99–104.
[95]
Kumar, C.S.S.R.; Mohammad, F. Magnetic nanomaterials for hyperthermia-based therapy and controlled drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2011, 63, 789–808, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2011.03.008.
[96]
Hergt, R.; Dutz, S.; Müller, R.; Zeisberger, M. Magnetic particle hyperthermia: Nanoparticle magnetism and materials development for cancer therapy. J. Phys. Condens. Matter. 2006, S2919–S2934.
[97]
Yoo, D.; Jeong, H.; Preihs, C.; Choi, J.-S.; Shin, T.-H.; Sessler, J.L.; Cheon, J. Double-effector nanoparticles: A synergistic approach to apoptotic hyperthermia. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 1–5.
[98]
Lee, J.-H.; Jang, J.-T.; Choi, J.-S.; Moon, S.H.; Noh, S.-H.; Kim, J.W.; Kim, J.-G.; Kim, I.-S.; Park, K.I.; Cheon, J. Exchange-coupled magnetic nanoparticles for efficient heat induction. Nat. Nanotech. 2011, 6, 418–422, doi:10.1038/nnano.2011.95.
[99]
Lee, J.-H.; Chen, K.-J.; Noh, S.-H.; Garcia, M.A.; Wang, H.; Lin, W.-Y.; Jeong, H.; Kong, B.J.; Stout, D.B.; Cheon, J.; et al. On-demand drug release systems for in vivo cancer treatment through self-assembled magnetic nanoparticles. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 1–6, doi:10.1002/anie.201209858.
[100]
Cho, M.H.; Lee, E.J.; Son, M.; Lee, J.-H.; Yoo, D.; Kim, J.-W.; Park, S.W.; Shin, J.-S.; Cheon, J. A magnetic switch for the control of cell death signaling in in vitro and in vivo systems. Nat. Mater. 2012, 11, 1038–1043.
[101]
Thomas, C.R.; Ferris, D.P.; Lee, J.H.; Choi, E.; Cho, M.H.; Kim, E.S.; Stoddart, J.F.; Shin, J.S.; Cheon, J.; Zink, J.I. Noninvasive remote-controlled release of drug molecules in vitro using magnetic actuation of mechanized nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 10623–10625, doi:10.1021/ja1022267.
[102]
Katagiri, K.; Imai, Y.; Kounoto, K.; Kaiden, T.; Kono, K.; Aoshima, S. Magnetoresponsive on-demand release of hybrid liposomes formed from Fe3O4 nanoparticles and thermosensitive block copolymer. Small 2011, 7, 1683–1689, doi:10.1002/smll.201002180.
[103]
Hernot, S.; Klibanov, A.L. Microbubbles in ultrasound-triggered drug and gene delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2008, 60, 1153–1166, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2008.03.005.
[104]
Kost, J.; Leong, K.; Langer, R. Ultrasound-enhaced polymer degradation and release of incorporated substances. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1989, 86, 7663–7666, doi:10.1073/pnas.86.20.7663.
[105]
Ferrara, K.; Pollard, R.; Borden, M. Ultrasound microbubble contrast agents: Fundamentals and application to gene and drug delivery. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2007, 9, 415–447, doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.8.061505.095852.
[106]
Tachibana, K.; Tachibana, S. The use of ultrasound for drug delivery. Echocardiography 2001, 18, 323–328.
[107]
Hosseinkhani, H.; Tabata, Y. Ultrasound enhances in vivo tumor expression of plasmid DNA by PEG-introduced cationized dextran. J. Contr. Release 2005, 108, 540–556, doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.08.027.
[108]
Chumakova, O.V.; Liopo, A.V.; Andreev, V.G.; Cicenaite, I.; Mark Evers, B.; Chakrabart, S.; Pappas, T.C.; Esenaliev, R.O. Composition of PLGA and PEI/DNA nanoparticles improves ultrasound-mediated gene delivery in solid tumors in vivo. Cancer Lett. 2008, 261, 215–225, doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2007.11.023.
[109]
Lum, A.F.H.; Borden, M.A.; Dayton, P.A.; Kruse, D.E.; Simon, S.I.; Ferrara, K.W. Ultrasound radiation force enables targeted deposition of model drug carriers loaded on microbubbles. J. Contr. Release 2006, 111, 128–134, doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.11.006.
[110]
Felber, A.E.; Dufresne, M.-H.; Lerous, J.C. pH-Sensitive vesicles, polymeric micelles, and nanospheres prepared with polycarboxylates. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2012, 64, 979–992, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2011.09.006.
[111]
Makhlof, A.; Tozuka, Y.; Takeuchi, H. pH-Sensitive nanospheres for colon-specific drug delivery in experimentally induced colitis rat model. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2009, 72, 1–8, doi:10.1016/j.ejpb.2008.12.013.
[112]
Wang, Z.-C.; Xu, X.-D.; Chen, C.-S.; Wang, G.-R.; Wang, B.; Zhang, X.-Z.; Zhuo, R.-X. Study on novel hydrogels based on thermosensitive PNIPAAm with pH sensitive PDMAEMA grafts. Colloid Surf. B Biointerfaces 2008, 67, 245–252.
[113]
Etrych, T.; Jelínková, M.A.; Ríhová, B.; Ulbrich, K. New HPMA copolymers containing doxorubicin bound via pH-sensitive linkage: Synthesis and preliminary in vitro and in vivo biological properties. J. Contr. Release 2001, 73, 89–102, doi:10.1016/S0168-3659(01)00281-4.
Lee, S.; Cha, E.-J.; Park, K.; Lee, S.-Y.; Hong, J.-K.; Sun, I.-C.; Kim, S.; Choi, K.; Kwon, I.C.; Kim, K.; et al. A near-infrared-fluorescence-quenched gold-nanoparticle imaging probe for in vivo drug screening and protease activity determination. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 2804–2807, doi:10.1002/anie.200705240.
[116]
Egeblad, M.; Werb, Z. New functions for the matrix metalloproteinases in cancer progression. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2002, 2, 161–174, doi:10.1038/nrc745.
[117]
Oishi, M.; Tamura, A.; Nakamura, T.; Nagasaki, Y. A smart nanoprobe based on fluorescence-quenching pegylated nanogels containing gold nanoparticles for monitoring the response to cancer therapy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2009, 19, 827–834, doi:10.1002/adfm.200801164.
[118]
Xia, X.; Yang, M.; Oetjen, L.K.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Q.; Chen, J.; Xia, Y. An enzyme-sensitive probe for photoacoustic imaging and fluorescence detection of protease activity. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 950–953, doi:10.1039/c0nr00874e.
[119]
Kim, T.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S.; Lee, K. Activatable nanomaterials at the forefront of biomedical sciences. J. Mater. Chem. 2010, 20, 8194–8206, doi:10.1039/c0jm01073a.
Sailor, M.J.; Park, J.-H. Hybrid nanoparticles for detection and treatment of cancer. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 3779–3802, doi:10.1002/adma.201200653.
[122]
Koo, H.; Huh, M.S.; Sun, I.-C.; Yuk, S.H.; Choi, K.; Kim, K.; Kwon, I.C. In vivo targeted delivery of nanoparticles for theranosis. Acc. Chem. Res. 2011, 44, 1018–1028, doi:10.1021/ar2000138.
[123]
Kim, E.; Lee, K.; Huh, Y.-M.; Haam, S. Magnetic nanocomplexes and the physiologicalchallenges associated with their use for cancer imagingand therapy. J. Mater. Chem. B 2013, 1, 729–739, doi:10.1039/c2tb00294a.
[124]
Janib, S.M.; Moses, A.S.; Mackay, J.A. Imaging and drug delivery using theranostic nanoparticles. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2010, 62, 1052–1063, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2010.08.004.
Sing, A.K.; Han, M.A.; Gutwein, L.G.; Rule, M.C.; Knapik, J.A.; Moudgil, B.M.; Grobmyer, S.R.; Brown, S.C. Multi-dye theranostic nanoparticle platform for bioimaging and cancer therapy. Int. J. Nanomed. 2012, 7, 2739–2750.
[127]
Fonkong, S.; Theek, B.; Wu, Z.; Koczera, P.; Appold, L.; Jorge, S.; Resch-Genger, U.; Zandvoort, M.; Storm, G.; Kiessling, F.; et al. Image-guided targeted and triggered drug delivery to tumors using polymer-based microbubbles. J. Contr. Release 2012, 163, 75–81, doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.05.007.
[128]
Liu, Y.; Ibricevic, A.; Cohen, J.A.; Cohen, J.L.; Gunsten, S.P.; Fréchet, J.M.; Walter, M.J.; Welch, M.J.; Brody, S.L. Impact of hydrogel nanoparticle size and functionalization on in vivo behavior for lung imaging and therapeutics. Mol. Pharm. 1891, 6, 1891–1902.
[129]
Park, H.; Yang, J.; Seo, S.; Kim, K.; Suh, J.-S.; Kim, D.; Haam, S.; Yoo, K.-H. Multifunctional nanoparticles for photothermally controlled drug delivery and magnetic resonance imaging enhancement. Small 2008, 4, 192–196, doi:10.1002/smll.200700807.
[130]
Rai, P.; Mallidi, S.; Zheng, X.; Rahmanzadeh, R.; Mir, Y.; Elrington, S.; Jhurshid, A.; Hasan, T. Development and applications of photo-triggered agents. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2010, 62, 1094–1124.
[131]
Chang, Y.-T.; Liao, P.Y.; Cheu, H.-S.; Tseng, Y.-J.; Cheng, F.-Y.; Yeh, C.-S. Near-infrared light-responsive intracellular drug and siRNA release using au nanoensembles with oligonucleotides-capped silica shell. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 3309–3314.
[132]
Gupta, M.K.; Meyer, T.A.; Nelson, C.E.; Duvall, C.L. Poly(PS-b-DMA) micelles for reactive oxygen species triggered drug release. J. Contr. Release 2012, 162, 591–598.
[133]
Graf, N.; Lippard, S.J. ReDOX activation of metal-based prodrugs as a strategy for drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. 2012, 64, 993–1004, doi:10.1016/j.addr.2012.01.007.
[134]
Gatenby, R.A.; Gawlinski, E.T.; Gmitro, A.F.; Kaylor, B.; Gillies, R.J. A reaction-diffusion model of cancer invasion. Cancer Res. 1996, 56, 5745–5753.
