Mitragynine (MG) and its major metabolites 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG) are two of the major components of the plant extract Kratom, which is a tree planted in Southeast Asia. Kratom has long been used by opioid-dependent individuals as an alternative to their unavailable opioid of choice and chronic pain medication, as a stealth-to-urine drug screening opiate substitute while in opioid recovery treatment and recreationally, alone or as a booster. In this study, a direct infusion method was utilized and electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometer was used as the detector for data acquisition. Pharmacokinetic study was conducted to investigate the effect of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine and major fragments of both compounds were proposed.
References
[1]
Ward, J., Rosenbaum, C., Hernon, C., McCurdy, C. and Boyer, E. (2011) Herbal Medicines for the Management of Opioid Addiction. CNS Drugs, 25, 999-1007. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11596830-000000000-00000
[2]
Suwanlert, S. (1975) A Study of Kratom Eaters in Thailand. Bulletin on Narcotics.
[3]
Jansen, K.L.R. and Prast, C.J. (1988) Psychoactive Properties of Mitragynine (Kratom). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 20, 455-457. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1988.10472519
[4]
Matsumoto, K., Mizowaki, M., Suchitra, T., Takayama, H., Sakai, S.-I., Aimi, N. and Watanabe, H. (1996) Antinociceptive Action of Mitragynine in Mice: Evidence for the Involvement of Supraspinal Opioid Receptors. Life Sciences, 59, 1149-1155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(96)00432-8
[5]
Vicknasingam, B., Narayanan, S., Beng, G.T. and Mansor, S.M. (2010) The Informal Use of Ketum (Mitragyna speciosa) for Opioid Withdrawal in the Northern States of Peninsular Malaysia and Implications for Drug Substitution Therapy. International Journal of Drug Policy, 21, 283-288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.12.003
[6]
Boyer, E.W., Babu, K.M., Macalino, G.E. and Compton, W. (2007) Self-Treatment of Opioid Withdrawal with a Dietary Supplement, Kratom. The American Journal on Addictions, 16, 352-356.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10550490701525368
[7]
Phongprueksapattana, S., Putalun, W., Keawpradub, N. and Wungsintaweekul, J. (2008) Mitragyna speciosa: Hairy Root Culture for Triterpenoid Production and High Yield of Mitragynine by Regenerated Plants. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C: A Journal of Biosciences, 63, 691. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znc-2008-9-1014
[8]
Zhao, C., Arroyo-Mora, L.E., DeCaprio, A.P., Sharma, V.K., Dionysiou, D.D. and O’Shea, K.E. (2014) Reductive and Oxidative Degradation of Iopamidol, Iodinated X-Ray Contrast Media, by Fe(III)-Oxalate under UV and Visible Light Treatment. Water Research, 67, 144-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.09.009
[9]
Babu, K.M., McCurdy, C.R. and Boyer, E.W. (2008) Opioid Receptors and Legal Highs: Salvia divinorum and Kratom. Clinical Toxicology, 46, 146-152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15563650701241795
[10]
Philipp, A.A., Wissenbach, D.K., Zoerntlein, S.W., Klein, O.N., Kanogsunthornrat, J. and Maurer, H.H. (2009) Studies on the Metabolism of Mitragynine, the Main Alkaloid of the Herbal Drug Kratom, in Rat and Human Urine Using Liquid Chromatography-Linear Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Mass Spectrometry, 44, 1249-1261.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jms.1607
[11]
Kong, W.M., Chik, Z., Ramachandra, M., Subramaniam, U., Aziddin, R.E.R. and Mohamed, Z. (2011) Evaluation of the Effects of Mitragyna speciosa Alkaloid Extract on Cytochrome P450 Enzymes Using a High Throughput Assay. Molecules, 16, 7344-7356. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules16097344
[12]
Chittrakarn, S., Keawpradub, N., Sawangjaroen, K., Kansenalak, S. and Janchawee, B. (2010) The Neuromuscular Blockade Produced by Pure Alkaloid, Mitragynine and Methanol Extract of Kratom Leaves (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 129, 344-349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.03.035
[13]
Chen, L., Zhao, C., Dionysiou, D.D. and O’Shea, K.E. (2015) TiO2 Photocatalytic Degradation and Detoxification of Cylindrospermopsin. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 307-308, 115-122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2015.03.013
[14]
Zhao, C., Pelaez, M., Dionysiou, D.D., Pillai, S.C., Byrne, J.A. and O’Shea, K.E. (2014) UV and Visible Light Activated TiO2 Photocatalysis of 6-Hydroxymethyl Uracil, a Model Compound for the Potent Cyanotoxin Cylindrospermopsin. Catalysis Today, 224, 70-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2013.09.042
[15]
Liu, S., Zhao, Y., Ma, F., Ma, L., O’Shea, K., Zhao, C., Hu, X. and Wu, M. (2015) Control of Microcystis aeruginosa Growth and Associated Microcystin Cyanotoxin Remediation by Electron Beam Irradiation (EBI). RSC Advances, 5, 31292-31297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C5RA00430F
[16]
Merola, G., Fu, H., Tagliaro, F., Macchia, T. and McCord, B.R. (2014) Chiral Separation of 12 Cathinone Analogs by Cyclodextrin-Assisted Capillary Electrophoresis with UV and Mass Spectrometry Detection. Electrophoresis, 35, 3231-3241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201400077
[17]
Merola, G., Fu, H., Tagliaro, F., Macchia, T. and McCord, B. (2014) Chiral Separation of 12 Cathinone Analogs by Cyclodextrin-Assisted Capillary Electrophoresis Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. 41st International Symposium and Exhibit on High Performance Liquid Phase Separations and Related Techniques (HPLC 2014), New Orleans.
[18]
Zheng, B., Fu, H., Berry, J.P. and McCord, B. (2016) A Rapid Method for Separation and Identification of Microcystins Using Capillary Electrophoresis and Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A, 1431, 205-214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2015.11.034
[19]
Yang, D., Li, Z., Diwu, Y.A., Fu, H., Liao, J., Wei, C. and Diwu, Z. (2008) A Novel Fluorogenic Coumarin Substrate for Monitoring Acid Phosphatase Activity at Low pH Environment. Current Chemical Genomics, 2, 48.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1875397300802010048
[20]
Fan, M., Yang, D., Wang, X., Liu, W. and Fu, H. (2014) DOSS-Based QAILs: As Both Neat Lubricants and Lubricant Additives with Excellent Tribological Properties and Good Detergency. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 53, 17952-17960. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie502849w
[21]
Fu, H., Cid, F.X., Dworkin, N., Cocores, J. and Shore, G. (2015) Screening and Identification of Mitragynine and 7- Hydroxymitragynine in Human Urine by LC-MS/MS. Chromatography, 2, 253-264.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/chromatography2020253
