Bauxite deposits for production of alumina are lacking in Nigeria and there is an aluminium smelter plant in the country which requires alumina for its operation. Development of alternative alumina resource using clays that are abundant in the country is the focus of this paper. The thermal activation of Ibere clay from southeastern Nigeria for optimal leaching of alumina was investigated. The clay assayed 28.52% Al2O3 and 51.6% SiO2, comprising mainly kaolinite mineral and quartz or free silica. The alumina locked up in the clay structure was rendered acid-soluble by thermal activation which transformed the clay from its crystalline nature to an amorphous, anhydrous phase or metakaolinite. The clay samples were heated at calcination temperatures of 500°C, 600°C, 700°C, 800°C, and 900°C at holding times of 30, 60, and 90 minutes. Uncalcined clay samples and samples calcined at 1000°C (holding for 60 minutes) were used in the control experiments. The result of leaching the clay calcines in 1 M hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature, showed that the clay calcines produced at 600°C (holding for 60 minutes) responded most to leaching. Samples calcined for 60 minutes also responded better than those held for 30 or 90 minutes. Based on activation energy studies, it was observed that calcines produced at 600°C (for 60 minutes) had both the highest leaching response (50.27% after 1 hour at leaching temperature of 100°C) and the lowest activation energy of 24.26 kJ/mol. It is concluded therefore that Ibere kaolinite clay should be best calcined for alumina dissolution by heating up to 600°C and holding for 60 minutes at that temperature. The clay deposit has potential for use as alternative resource for alumina production in Nigeria where bauxite is scarce.
References
[1]
Hudson, K., Misra, C. and Wefers, K. (1997) Aluminium Oxide. In: Habashi. F., Ed., Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy, Volume II, Part 3: Light Metals, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1062-1068.
[2]
Hudson, K., Misra, C. and Wefers, K. (1997) Bauxite, the Principal Alumina Raw Material. In: Habashi. F., Ed., Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy, Volume II, Part 3: Light Metals, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1068-1072.
[3]
Hudson, K., Misra, C. and Wefers, K. (1997) Other Processes for Alumina Production. In: Habashi. F., Ed., Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy, Volume II, Part 3: Light Metals, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1091-1094.
[4]
Hudson, L.K., Misra, C., Perrotta, A.J., Wefers, K. and Williams, F.S. (2011) Aluminum Oxide. In: Elvers, B., Ed., Ullman’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 7th Edition, Wiley-VCH, Weiheim, 1-40.
[5]
Habashi, F. (1995) Bayer’s Process for Alumina Production: A Historical Perspective. Bulletin of Historical Chemistry No.17-18, 15-19.
[6]
Habashi, F. (2005) A Short History of Hydrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy, 79, 15-22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2004.01.008
[7]
United States Geological Survey (USGS) (2013) Bauxite and Alumina. Compiled by Lee Bray, E., White, L.M. and Miller, L.D., 2013 Minerals Yearbook (Advance Release), 13 p.
[8]
United States Geological Survey (USGS) (2015) Aluminium: Mineral Commodity Summaries. Compiled by Lee Bray, E., 16-17.
[9]
United States Geological Survey (USGS) (2015) Bauxite and Alumina: Mineral Commodity Summaries. Compiled by Lee Bray, E., 26-27.
[10]
United States Geological Survey (USGS) (2015) Bauxite and Alumina: Mineral Industry Surveys, First Quarter of 2015. Compiled by Lee Bray, E. and Barnes, L.M., 1-5.
[11]
Schwarz, T. (1997) Distribution and Genesis of Bauxite on the Mambilla Plateau, SE Nigeria. Applied Geochemistry, 12, 119-131.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(96)00058-3
[12]
Petters, S.W. (1993) Metallic and Nonmetallic (Industrial) Minerals. In: Adalemo, I.A. and Baba, J.M., Eds., Nigeria: Giant in the Tropics, Volume 1: A Compendium, Gabuno Pub. Ltd., Lagos, 61.
[13]
Obaje, N.G. (2009) Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria: Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences 120. Springer, London, 52, 118-119, 183-201.
[14]
Wright, J.B., Hastings, D.A., Jones, W.B. and Williams, H.R. (1985) Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa. George Allen & Unwin, London, 35, 48-49, 87, 119, 145, 157.
[15]
Malomo, S. (2011) Framework and Opportunities for Sustainable Private Sector Participation in Solid Minerals Development in Ekiti State. Ekiti State Economic Development Summit.
[16]
Talabi, A.O., Ademilua, O.L., Ajayi, O.Z. and Ogunniyi, S.O. (2013) Preliminary Geophysical Evaluation of Orin Bauxite Deposit, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences, 4, 432-437.
[17]
Sada, M.M. (2013) Mid-Term Report for the Minerals and Metals Sector. Ministerial Platform Presented by Minister, Ministry of Mines and Steel Development (MMSD).
[18]
Adeniji, G. (2009) An Overview of Nigeria’s Solid Minerals Sector. ACCENTURE Knowledge Event, 1-10.
[19]
Pabalkar, V.V. (1999) Nigerian Aluminium Industry: Scope and Prospects. Proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference of the Nigerian Metallurgical Society, Abuja, 3-5 November 1999, 1-7.
[20]
Okorie, B.A. (2000) The Metallurgical Industry and National Development. 2nd Annual NAMMES Conference Tagged, Owerri, 16-17 March 2000, 1-8.
[21]
Aliyu, A. (1996) Potentials of the Solid Minerals Industry in Nigeria. RMRDC, Abuja, 1-40, 63-83, 164-172.
[22]
Fejokwu, L.C. (1996) Nigeria: A Viable Black Power, Vol. 2: Resources, Potentials and Challenges. Polcom Press, Lagos, 375-385.
[23]
Mark, U. and Onyemaobi, O.O. (2009) Assessment of the Industrial Potentials of Some Nigerian Kaolinitic Clay Deposits. International Research Journal in Engineering, Science & Technology, 6, 77-84.
Shackelford, J.F. (2015) Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers. 8th Edition, Pearson Higher Education, Upper Saddle River, 71-72.
[26]
Attah, L.E. and Oden M.I. (2010) Physico-Chemical Properties and Industrial Potential of Some Clay Deposits in Calabar Area, South Eastern Nigeria. Global Journal of Environmental Sciences, 9, 39-49.
[27]
Velde, B. (1995) Composition and Mineralogy of Clay Minerals. In: Velde. B., Ed., Origin and Mineralogy of Clays: Clays and the Environment, Springer, Berlin, 8-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-12648-6_2
[28]
International Committee for Study of Bauxite, Alumina and Aluminium (ICSOBA) (2018) Rusal and Russia Aluminium Industry. Upcoming Events. ICSOBA Newsletter, Vol. 17, 11-18.
[29]
Habashi, F. (2017) Alumina from Silicates. Technical Paper, ICSOBA Newsletter, Vol. 17, 12-14. https://works.bepress.com/fathi_habashi/
[30]
Chakraborty, A.K. (2014) Phase Transformations of Kaolinite Clay. Springer, New Delh, 3-12, 43-47, 185-206, 327-329. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1154-9
[31]
Habashi, F. (2014) A New Era in Pressure Hydrometallurgy. Metall, 68, 27-34.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288209801
[32]
Velde, B. (1992) Introduction to Clay Minerals: Chemistry, Origins, Uses and Environmental Significance. Chapman & Hall, London, 1-17, 55-82, 96.
[33]
Fahrenholtz, W.G. (2008) Clays. In: Shackelford, J.F. and Doremus, R.H., Eds., Ceramic and Glass Materials: Structure, Properties and Processing, Springer, New York, 111-133. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73362-3_7
[34]
Kaolinite (2015) In Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaolinite&oldid=693335566
[35]
Ilic, B.R., Mitrovic, A.A. and Milicic, L.R. (2010) Thermal Treatment of Kaolin Clay to Obtain Metakaolin. Hemijskaindustrija, 64, 351-356.
[36]
Pinna, E.G., Suarez, D.G., Rosales, G.D. and Rodriguez, M.H. (2017) Hydrometallurgical Extraction of Al and Si from Kaolinitic Clays. International Engineering Journal, 70, 451-457. https://doi.org/10.1590/0370-44672017700006
[37]
Lamberov, A.A., Sitnikova, E.Y. and Abdulga, A.S. (2012) Kinetic Features of Phase Transformation of Kaolinite into Metakaolinite for Kaolin Clays from Different Deposits. Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry, 85, 892-897.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S1070427212060109
[38]
Duval, D.J., Risbud, S.H. and Shackelford, J.F. (2008) Mullite. In: Shackelford. J.F. and Doremus, R.H., Eds., Ceramic and Glass Materials: Structure, Properties and Processing, Springer, New York, 27-39.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73362-3_2
[39]
Ghosh, A. and Ghosh, S. (2014) A Textbook of Metallurgical Kinetics. PHI Learning Private Ltd., Delhi, 1-10, 82-100, 151-185, 301-319.
[40]
Gupta, C.K. (2003) Chemical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co., Weinheim, 31-52, 459-499.
Brown, T.L., LeMay, H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J. and Woodward, P.M. (2012) Chemistry: The Central Science. 12th Edition, Pearson Educationm New Yorkm 512-655,
[43]
Al-Zahrani, A.A. and Abdul-Majid, M.H. (2009) Extraction of Alumina from Local Clays by Hydrochloric Acid Process. Engineering Science Journal of King Abdulaziz University, 20, 29-41. https://doi.org/10.4197/Eng.20-2.2
[44]
Al-Ajeel, A.W.A. and Al-Sindy, S.I. (2006) Alumina Recovery from Iraqi Kaolinitic Clay by Hydrochloric Acid Route. Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, 2, 67-76.
[45]
Ajemba, R.O. and Onukwuli, O.D. (2012) Determination of the Optimum Dissolution Conditions of Ukpor Clay in Hydrochloric Acid Using Response Surface Methodology. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 2, 732-742.
[46]
Udeigwe, U., Onukwuli, O.D., Ajemba, R. and Ude, C.N. (2015) Kinetic Studies of Hydrochloric Acid Leaching of Alumina from Agbaja Clay. International Journal of Research in Advanced Engineering and Technology, 1, 64-72.
