Repurposing psychiatric medicines to target activated microglia in anxious mild cognitive impairment and early Parkinson’s disease

Anxiety is common in the Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) stage of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the pre-motor stages of Parkinson’s disease (PD). A concomitant and possible cause of this anxiety is microglial activation, also considered a key promoter of neurodegeneration in MCI and early PD via inflammatory mechanisms and the generation of degenerative proinflammatory cytokines. Psychiatric disorders, prevalent in AD and PD, are often treated with psychiatric drugs (psychotropics), raising the question of whether psychotropics might therapeutically affect microglial activation, MCI, and PD. The literature of common psychotropics used in treating psychiatric disorders was reviewed for preclinical and clinical findings regarding microglial activation. Findings potentially compatible with reduced microglial activation or reduced microglial inflammogen release were evident for: antipsychotics including neuroleptics (chlorpromazine, thioridazine, loxapine) and atypicals (aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone); mood stabilizers (carbamazepine, valproate, lithium); antidepressants including tricyclics (amitriptyline, clomipramine, imipramine, nortriptyline), SSRIs (citalopram, escitalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, sertraline), venlafaxine, and bupropion; benzodiazepine anxiolytics (clonazepam, diazepam); cognitive enhancers (donepezil, galantamine, memantine); and other drugs (dextromethorphan, quinidine, amantadine). In contrast, pramipexole and methylphenidate might promote microglial activation. The most promising replicated findings of reduced microglial activation are for quetiapine, valproate, lithium, fluoxetine, donepezil, and memantine but further study is needed and translation of their microglial effects to human disease still requires investigation. In AD-relevant models, risperidone, valproate, lithium, fluoxetine, bupropion, donepezil, and memantine have therapeutic microglial effects in need of replication. Limited clinical data suggest some support for lithium and donepezil in reducing MCI progression, but other drugs have not been studied. In PD-relevant models, lamotrigine, valproate, fluoxetine, dextromethorphan, and amantadine have therapeutic microglial effects whereas methylphenidate induced microglial activation and pramipexole promoted NO release. Clinical data limited to pramipexole do not as of yet indicate faster progression of early PD while the other drugs remain to be investigated. These tantalizing psychotropic neuroprotective findings now invite replication and evidence in AD-and PD-specific