Rehabilitative exercise and spatially patterned nanofibrillar scaffolds enhance vascularization and innervation following volumetric muscle loss

Characterization of aligned nanofibrillar collagen scaffold aggregates. a Schematic diagram of three-dimensional randomly oriented scaffold bundle and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of nanofibril organization. b Schematic diagram of three-dimensional parallel-aligned scaffold bundle and SEM image of nanofibril organization. c, d Mechanical characterization of stiffness by Young’s Modulus c and maximum load d between randomly oriented scaffolds (random) and aligned scaffolds (n？=？5). e Cellular attachment of human endothelial cells to aligned nanofibrillar scaffolds. Scale bars: 400？μm a, b, 50？μm e. Arrow denotes the direction of nanofibril alignment. Statistically significant comparisons: * P？<？0.05, ***P？<？0.001. Error bars denote standard deviatio