Pharmacological Modulation of Vagal Nerve Activity in Cardiovascular Diseases

Methods and indices used to evaluate vagal activity in cardiovascular disease. Vagus activity can be evaluated by (I) measurement of the vagal discharge (image adapted from Lu Y et al. [27]); (II) autonomic tone and intrinsic heart rate; (III) HRV and BRS; (IV) cardiac autonomic nerves and cholinergic nerve distribution; and (V) detection of the release of ACh into the circulation (image adapted from Zhao M et al. [6]). ACh, acetylcholine; BRS, baroreflex sensitivity; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; HRV, heart rate variability; PSYM, parasympathetic; SYM, sympathetic