Biomass supplies about 80% of the energy needs for
cooking and heating in rural Ghana. It is
predominantly used in traditional and inefficient forms (firewood and charcoal), which presents environmental and
health concerns. In order to better the living standard in rural Ghana, efforts
must be made to provide modern energy services. Most rural communities in Ghana
are so remote that an extension of the national grid is uneconomical, hence
biomass electricity provides a viable alternative. Biomass is pivotal to the
socio-economic development of rural Ghana due to its easy accessibility
and enormous potential in the production of varied energy forms. In this paper,
a comprehensive review of biomass resources, biomass energy conversion
technologies and bioenergy production potential for rural development in Ghana
is provided. The most important feedstock from an energy perspective was found
to be crop residues. Based on 2017 statistics, Ghana has a theoretical
potential of 623.84 PJ of energy from agricultural crop residues and 64.27 PJ
of energy from livestock production. Evidence from literature suggests that
biomass gasification is the best conversion technology to expand electricity
access rate for rural households in Ghana. The paper concludes that although
ample biomass resources exist, cocoa pod husks (CPH) which is very common in
rural Ghana can be pelletized and used as feedstock for rural power generation
systems.
References
[1]
Kemausuor, F., Nygaard, I. and Mackenzie, G. (2015) Prospects for Bioenergy Use in Ghana Using Long-Range Energy Alternatives Planning Model. Energy, 93, 672-682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.08.104
[2]
Serwaa Mensah, G., Kemausuor, F. and Brew-Hammond, A. (2014) Energy Access Indicators and Trends in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 30, 317-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.10.032
[3]
Gyamfi, S., Modjinou, M. and Djordjevic, S. (2015) Improving Electricity Supply Security in Ghana—The Potential of Renewable Energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 43, 1035-1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.102
[4]
IEA Ghana (2016) The Most Important Problems Confronting Ghana: A Presentation and Discussion of IEA’s Survey Results. https://media.africaportal.org/documents/IEA-Socio-Econ-Survey-Main-Report-19-01-17.pdf
[5]
CIA (2018) The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ghana/
[6]
Cooke, E., Hague, S. and McKay, A. (2016) The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report. UNICEF.
[7]
Mohammed, Y.S., Mokhtar, A.S., Bashir, N. and Saidur, R. (2013) An Overview of Agricultural Biomass for Decentralized Rural Energy in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 20, 15-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.047
[8]
Kemausuor, F., Kamp, A., Thomsen, S.T., Bensah, E.C. and Stergård, H. (2014) Assessment of Biomass Residue Availability and Bioenergy Yields in Ghana. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 86, 28-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.01.007
[9]
Ayamga, E.A., Kemausuor, F. and Addo, A. (2015) Technical Analysis of Crop Residue Biomass Energy in an Agricultural Region of Ghana. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 96, 51-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.01.007
[10]
Kemausuor, F., Obeng, G.Y., Brew-Hammond, A. and Duker, A. (2011) A Review of Trends, Policies and Plans for Increasing Energy Access in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 5143-5154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.041
[11]
Sakah, M., Amankwah, F., Katzenbach, R. and Gyam, S. (2017) Towards a Sustainable Electrification in Ghana: A Review of Renewable Energy Deployment Policies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 79, 544-557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.090
[12]
Kumi, E.N. (2017) The Electricity Situation in Ghana: Challenges and Opportunities. CGD Policy Paper, Washington DC.
[13]
Gboney, W. (2008) Policy and Regulatory Framework for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Development in Ghana. Climate Strategies, London.
[14]
Ahmed, A., Campion, B.B. and Gasparatos, A. (2017) Biofuel Development in Ghana: Policies of Expansion and Drivers of Failure in the Jatropha Sector. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 70, 133-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.216
[15]
Duku, M.H., Gu, S. and Ben Hagan, E. (2011) A Comprehensive Review of Biomass Resources and Biofuels Potential in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.09.033
[16]
European Commission (2009) Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources. Official Journal of the European Union, 16-62.
[17]
Ramachandra, T.V., Kamakshi, G. and Shruthi, B.V. (2004) Bioresource Status in Karnataka. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 8, 1-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2003.09.001
BioEnergy Consult (2018) Biomass as Renewable Energy Resource. https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/tag/types-of-biomass/
[20]
Energy Commission of Ghana (2018) National Energy Statistics 2008-2017, Accra.
[21]
Asumadu-Sarkodie, S. and Owusu, P.A. (2016) A Review of Ghana’s Energy Sector National Energy Statistics and Policy Framework. Cogent Engineering, 3, Article ID: 1155274. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2016.1155274
[22]
Ahiataku-Togobo, W. and Ofosu-Ahenkorah, A. (2009) Bioenergy Policy Implementation in Ghana. Compete International Conference, Lusaka, 26-28 May 2009.
[23]
FAOSTAT (2017) Crops Production Ghana. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC
[24]
(2015) VOTOMOBILE, A Complete Curriculum and Guide to Maize Production in Ghana. https://www.agricinafrica.com/
[25]
Kabbashi, N., Alam, M. and Mokhtar, S.F.S. (2012) Bio-Ethanol Production from Sugar Cane by Product with Cheapest Strain. Malaysian International Conference on Trends in Bioprocess Engineering, Arau, 3-5 July 2012, 1-9.
[26]
ENDA (2010) Bioenergy for Rural Development in West Africa: The Case of Ghana. Mali and Senegal Final Report.
[27]
Amalia Kartika, I., Yani, M., Ariono, D., Evon, P. and Rigal, L. (2013) Biodiesel Production from Jatropha Seeds: Solvent Extraction and in Situ Transesterification in a Single Step. Fuel, 106, 111-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.01.021
[28]
Kemausuor, F., Akowuah, J.O. and Ofori, E. (2013) Assessment of Feedstock Options for Biofuels Production in Ghana. Journal of Sustainable Bioenergy Systems, 3, 119-128. https://doi.org/10.4236/jsbs.2013.32017
[29]
Ofosu-Budu, K. and Sarpong, D.B. (2013) Oil Palm Industry Growth in Africa: A Value Chain and Smallholders’ Study for Ghana. In: Elbehri, A., Ed., Rebuilding West Africa’s Food Potential, FAO/IFAD, Rome, 349-389.
[30]
Zahan, K.A. and Kano, M. (2018) Biodiesel Production from Palm Oil, Its By-Products, and Mill Effluent: A Review. Energies, 11, Article No. 2132. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11082132
[31]
Akinola, A.O., Eiche, J.F., Owolabi, P.O. and Elegbeleye, A.P. (2018) Pyrolytic Analysis of Cocoa Pod for Biofuel Production. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 37, 1026-1031. https://doi.org/10.4314/njt.v37i4.23
[32]
Awolu, O. and Oyeyemi, S. (2015) Optimization of Bioethanol Production from Cocoa (The-obroma cacao) Bean Shell. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 4, 506-514.
[33]
Owusu-Adjei, E., Baah-Mintah, R. and Salifu, B. (2017) Analysis of the Groundnut Value Chain in Ghana. World Journal of Agricultural Research, 5, 177-188. https://doi.org/10.12691/wjar-5-3-8
[34]
Tsigbey, F.K., Brandenburg, R.L. and Clottey, V.A. (2004) Peanut Production Methods in Northern Ghana and Some Disease Perspectives. World Geography of Peanut Knowledge Base Website.
[35]
Ahmad, M., Rashid, S., Khan, M.A., Zafar, M., Sultana, S. and Gulzar, S. (2009) Optimization of Base Catalyzed Transesterification of Peanut Oil Biodiesel. African Journal of Bio-technology, 8, 441-446.
[36]
Business Ghana (2019) Rice Production in Ghana to Reach 750,000. https://www.businessghana.com/site/news/general/194744/Rice-production-in-Ghana-to-reach-750-000
[37]
FAO (2013) Analysis of Incentives and Disincentives for Sorghum in Ghana. Technical Note Series.
[38]
Jiang, D., Hao, M., Fu, J., Liu, K. and Yan, X. (2019) Potential Bioethanol Production from Sweet Sorghum on Marginal Land in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 220, 225-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.294
[39]
Acheampong, P., Osei-Adu, J. and Amengor, N.E. (2014) Cocoyam Value Chain and Benchmark Study in Ghana. WAAPP Sweet Potato Value Chain Study 2014.
[40]
Braide, W. and Nwaoguikpe, R.N. (2011) Production of Ethanol from Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta). International Journal of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 3, 64-66.
[41]
Adelekan, B. (2012) An Evaluation of the Global Potential of Cocoyam (Colocasia and Xan-thosoma species) as an Energy Crop. British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, 2, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2012/60 3
[42]
FAO (2013) Analysis of Incentives and Disincentives for Yam in Ghana.
[43]
Loos, T.K., Hoppe, M., Dzomeku, B.M. and Scheiterle, L. (2018) The Potential of Plantain Residues for the Ghanaian Bioeconomy-Assessing the Current Fiber Value Web. Sustainability, 10, Article No. 4825. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124825
Nelson, N. (2018) Climate Change Mitigation Measures in Ghana. AES Bioflux, 10, 97-105.
[46]
Duku, M.H., Gu, S. and Ben Hagan, E. (2011) Biochar Production Potential in Ghana—A Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 3539-3551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.05.010
[47]
Syamsiro, M., Saptoadi, H., Tambunan, B.H. and Pambudi, N.A. (2012) A Preliminary Study on Use of Cocoa Pod Husk as a Renewable Source of Energy in Indonesia. Energy for Sustainable Development, 16, 74-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.10.005
[48]
Tsai, C.H., Tsai, W.T., Liu, S.C. and Lin, Y.Q. (2018) Thermochemical Characterization of Biochar from Cocoa Pod Husk Prepared at Low Pyrolysis Temperature. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 8, 237-243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-017-0259-5
[49]
Adjin-Tetteh, M., Asiedu, N., Dodoo-Arhin, D., Karam, A. and Amaniampong, P.N. (2018) Thermochemical Conversion and Characterization of Cocoa Pod Husks a Potential Agricultural Waste from Ghana. Industrial Crops and Products, 119, 304-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.02.060
[50]
Baldwin, R.M., et al. (2012) Current Research on Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 115-116, 320-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2011.10.033
[51]
Duku, M.H., Gu, S. and Ben Hagan, E. (2011) A Comprehensive Review of Biomass Resources and Biofuels Potential in Ghana, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.09.033
[52]
Kemausuor, F., Addo, A., Ofori, E., Darkwah, L., Bolwig, S. and Nygaard, I. (2015) Assessment of Technical Potential and Selected Sustainability Impacts of Second Generation Bioenergy in Ghana. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.
[53]
Präger, F., Paczkowski, S., Sailer, G., Derkyi, N.S.A. and Pelz, S. (2019) Biomass Sources for a Sustainable Energy Supply in Ghana—A Case Study for Sunyani. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 107, 413-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.016
[54]
Domson, O. and Vlosky, R.P. (2007) A Strategic Overview of the Forest Sector in Ghana. Louisiana Forest Products Development Center.
[55]
Ghana Energy Commission (2006) Strategic National Energy Plan (2006-2020). http://energycom.gov.gh/files/snep/WOODFUELfinalPD.pdf
[56]
IRENA (2015) Ghana Renewables Readiness Assessment. International Renewable Energy Agency. https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_RRA_Ghana_Nov_2015.pdf
[57]
Gómez-Barea, A., Leckner, B., Villanueva Perales, A., Nilsson, S. and Fuentes Cano, D. (2013) Improving the Performance of Fluidized Bed Biomass/Waste Gasifiers for Distributed Electricity: A New Three-Stage Gasification System. Applied Thermal Engineering, 50, 1453-1462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.12.025
[58]
Yuan, X.Z., Li, H., Zeng, G.M., Tong, J.Y. and Xie, W. (2007) Sub- and Supercritical Lique-faction of Rice Straw in the Presence of Ethanol-Water and 2-Propanol-Water Mixture. Energy, 32, 2081-2088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2007.04.011
[59]
Shuping, Z., Yulong, W., Mingde, Y., Kaleem, I., Chun, L. and Tong, J. (2010) Production and Characterization of Bio-Oil From Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Microalgae Dunaliella tertiolecta Cake. Energy, 35, 5406-5411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.07.013
[60]
Xu, C. and Lancaster, J. (2008) Conversion of Secondary Pulp/Paper Sludge Powder to Liquid Oil Products for Energy Recovery by Direct Liquefaction in Hot-Compressed Water. Water Research, 42, 1571-1582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.11.007
[61]
FAOSTAT (2017) Live Animals Ghana. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/?#data/QA
[62]
McKendry, P. (2002) Energy Production from Biomass (Part 2): Conversion Technologies. Bioresour. Technol., 83, 47-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00119-5
[63]
Adams, P., Bridgwater, T., Lea-Langton, A., Ross, A. and Watson, I. (2018) Chapter 8-Biomass Conversion Technologies. In: Thornley, P. and Adams, P., Eds., Greenhouse Gas Balances of Bioenergy Systems, Academic Press, Cambridge, 107-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101036-5.00008-2
[64]
World Energy Council (2016) World Energy Resources Waste to Energy.
[65]
UEMOA (2008) Biomass Conversion Technologies.
[66]
BAGS (2019) Institutional Biogas Feasibility. Biogas Association of Ghana. https://partnersforinnovation.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Feasibility-study-of-Ghana-Institutional-Biogas-Programme.pdf
[67]
Bensah, E.C., Mensah, M. and Antwi, E. (2011) Status and Prospects for Household Biogas Plants in Ghana—Lessons, Barriers, Potential, and Way Forward. International Journal of Energy and Environment, 2, 887-898.
[68]
Mohammed, M., et al. (2017) Feasibility Study for Biogas Integration into Waste Treatment Plants in Ghana. Egypt. J. Pet., 26, 695-703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2016.10.004
[69]
Abu Bakar, M.S. and Titiloye, J.O. (2013) Catalytic Pyrolysis of Rice Husk for Bio-Oil Production. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 103, 362-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2012.09.005
[70]
Ahiataku-Togobo, W. and Owusu-Obeng, P.Y. (2016) Biogas Technology—What Works for Ghana? http://energycom.gov.gh/files/Biogas-WhatworksforGhana.pdf
[71]
Vergara, L., Swain, D. and Meila, J. (2019) How to Overcome Anaerobic Digestion Technical Limitations with Ultrasound. https://conferences.aquaenviro.co.uk/proceedings/how-to-overcome-anaerobic-digestion-technical-limitations-with-ultrasound/
[72]
Li, X., et al. (2018) Anaerobic Digestion Using Ultrasound as Pretreatment Approach: Changes in Waste Activated Sludge, Anaerobic Digestion Performances and Digestive Microbial Populations. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 139, 139-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2017.11.009
[73]
Corona, F., Hidalgo, D., Díez-Rodríguez, D. and Urueña, A. (2016) Thermochemical Conversion as the Key Step for the Production of Value-Added Products from Waste. Biofuels, 1-26.
[74]
Watson, J., Zhang, Y., Si, B., Chen, W. and De Souza, R. (2018) Gasification of Biowaste: A Critical Review and Outlooks. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 83, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.003
[75]
Sansaniwal, S.K., Rosen, M.A. and Tyagi, S.K. (2017) Global Challenges in the Sustainable Development of Biomass Gasification: An Overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80, 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.215
[76]
Siedlecki, M., De Jong, W. and Verkooijen, A.H.M. (2011) Fluidized Bed Gasification as a Mature And Reliable Technology for the Production of Bio-Syngas and Applied in the Production of Liquid Transportation Fuels—A Review. Energies, 4, 389-434. https://doi.org/10.3390/en4030389
[77]
Sikarwar, V.S., et al. (2016) An Overview of Advances in Biomass Gasification. Energy & Environmental Science, 9, 2939-2977. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EE00935B
[78]
Heidenreich, S. and Foscolo, P.U. (2015) New Concepts in Biomass Gasification. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 46, 72-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2014.06.002
[79]
Kumar, A., Jones, D.D. and Hanna, M.A. (2009) Thermochemical Biomass Gasification: A Review of the Current Status of the Technology. Energies, 2, 556-581. https://doi.org/10.3390/en20300556
[80]
Valderrama Rios, M.L., González, A.M., Lora, E.E.S. and Almazán del Olmo, O.A. (2018) Reduction of Tar Generated during Biomass Gasification: A Review. Biomass and Bioenergy, 108, 345-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2017.12.002
[81]
Devi, L., Ptasinski, K.J. and Janssen, F.J.J.G. (2003) A Review of the Primary Measures for Tar Elimination in Biomass Gasiÿcation Processes. Biomass and Bionergy, 24, 125-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0961-9534(02)00102-2
[82]
Henriksen, U., Ahrenfeldt, J., Kvist, T. and Gøbel, B. (2006) The Design, Construction and Operation of a 75 kW Two-Stage Gasifier. Energy, 31, 1542-1553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2005.05.031
[83]
Leijenhorst, E.J., Wolters, W., Van De Beld, B. and Prins, W. (2015) Staged Biomass Gasification by Autothermal Catalytic Reforming of Fast Pyrolysis Vapors. Energy and Fuels, 29, 7395-7407. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b01912
[84]
Ramamurthi, P.V., Fernandes, M.C., Nielsen, P.S. and Nunes, C.P. (2016) Utilisation of Rice Residues for Decentralised Electricity Generation in Ghana: An Economic Analysis. Energy, 111, 620-629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.05.116
[85]
Otchere-Appiah, G. and Hagan, E.B. (2014) Potential for Electricity Generation from Maize Residues in Rural Ghana: A Case Study of Brong Ahafo Region. International Journal of Renewable Energy Technology, 3, 1-10.
[86]
BioEnergy Consult (2018) Summary of Biomass Combustion Technologies. https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/?s=combustion
[87]
Demirbas, A. (2004) Combustion Characteristics of Different Biomass Fuels. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 30, 219-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2003.10.004
[88]
Nussbaumer, T. (2003) Combustion and Co-Combustion of Biomass: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Primary Measures for Emission Reduction. Energy and Fuels, 17, 1510-1521. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef030031q
[89]
Nunes, L.J.R., Matias, J.C.O. and Catalão, J.P.S. (2016) Biomass Combustion Systems: A Review on the Physical and Chemical Properties of the Ashes. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 53, 235-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.08.053
[90]
Jandačka, J., Holubčík, M., Papučík, Š. and Nosek, R. (2012) Combustion of Pellets from Wheat Straw. Acta Montanistica Slovaca, 17, 283-289.
[91]
Sher, F., Pans, M.A., Afilaka, D.T., Sun, C. and Liu, H. (2017) Experimental Investigation of Woody and Non-Woody Biomass Combustion in a Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustor Focusing on Gaseous Emissions and Temperature Profiles. Energy, 141, 2069-2080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.11.118
[92]
Wang, Q., et al. (2018) Effects of Secondary Air Distribution in Primary Combustion Zone on Combustion and NOx Emissions of a Large-Scale Down-Fired Boiler with Air Staging. Energy, 165, 399-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.09.194
[93]
Carbon Trust (2009) Biomass Heating: A Practical Guide for Potential Users.
[94]
Shi, X., Ronsse, F. and Pieters, J.G. (2016) Finite Element Modeling of Intraparticle Heterogeneous Tar Conversion during Pyrolysis of Woody Biomass Particles. Fuel Processing Technology, 148, 302-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.03.010
[95]
Bain, R.L. (2004) An Introduction to Biomass Thermochemical Conversion. DOE/NASLUGC Biomass and Solar Energy Workshops. NREL.
[96]
Dilks, R.T., Monette, F. and Glaus, M. (2016) The Major Parameters on Biomass Pyrolysis for Hyperaccumulative Plants—A Review. Chemosphere, 146, 385-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.062
[97]
Guran, S. (2018) Sustainable Waste-to-Energy Technologies: Gasification and Pyrolysis. In: Trabold, T.A. and Babbitt, C.W., Eds., Sustainable Food Waste-to-Energy Systems, Academic Press, Cambridge, 141-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811157-4.00008-5
[98]
Basu, P. (2018) Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis and Torrefaction: Practical Design and Theory. 3rd Edition, Academic Press, London.
[99]
Dhyani, V. and Bhaskar, T. (2018) A Comprehensive Review on the Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass. Renewable Energy, 129, 695-716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.035
[100]
Guedes, R.E., Luna, A.S. and Torres, A.R. (2018) Operating Parameters for Bio-Oil Production in Biomass Pyrolysis: A Review. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 129, 134-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2017.11.019
[101]
Chhiti, Y. and Kemiha, M. (2013) Thermal Conversion of Biomass, Pyrolysis and Gasification: A Review. International Journal of Engineering Science, 2, 75-85.
[102]
Mohan, D., Pittman, C.U. and Steele, P.H. (2006) Pyrolysis of Wood/Biomass for Bio-Oil: A Critical Review. Energy and Fuels, 20, 848-889. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef0502397
[103]
Im-Orb, K., Wiyaratn, W. and Arpornwichanop, A. (2018) Technical and Economic Assessment of the Pyrolysis and Gasification Integrated Process for Biomass Conversion. Energy, 153, 592-603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.04.049
[104]
Bridgwater, A.V. (2007) The Production of Biofuels and Renewable Chemicals by Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass. International Journal of Global Energy Issues, 27, 160. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGEI.2007.013654
[105]
Park, C.S., Roy, P.S. and Kim, S.H. (2018) Current Developments in Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Fuels and Chemicals. Intech Open, 2, 19-41. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71464
[106]
Al Arni, S. (2018) Comparison of Slow and Fast Pyrolysis for Converting Biomass into Fuel. Renewable Energy, 124, 197-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.060
[107]
Mansur, D., Tago, T., Masuda, T. and Abimanyu, H. (2014) Conversion of Cacao Pod Husks by Pyrolysis and Catalytic Reaction to Produce Useful Chemicals. Biomass and Bioenergy, 66, 275-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.03.065
[108]
Cai, W. and Liu, R. (2016) Performance of a Commercial-Scale Biomass Fast Pyrolysis Plant for Bio-Oil Production. Fuel, 182, 677-686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.06.030
[109]
Zheng, J.L. (2007) Bio-Oil from Fast Pyrolysis of Rice Husk: Yields and Related Properties and Improvement of the Pyrolysis System. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 80, 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2006.12.030
[110]
Heo, H.S., et al. (2010) Fast Pyrolysis of Rice Husk under Different Reaction Conditions. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 16, 27-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2010.01.026
[111]
Lu, Q., Yang, X.L. and Zhu, X.F. (2008) Analysis on Chemical and Physical Properties of Bio-Oil Pyrolyzed from Rice Husk. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 82, 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2008.03.003
[112]
Paenpong, C. and Pattiya, A. (2016) Effect of Pyrolysis and Moving-Bed Granular Filter Temperatures on the Yield and Properties of Bio-Oil from Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 119, 40-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2016.03.019
[113]
Park, J., Lee, Y., Ryu, C. and Park, Y.K. (2014) Slow Pyrolysis of Rice Straw: Analysis of Products Properties, Carbon and Energy Yields. Bioresource Technology, 155, 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.12.084
[114]
Atakora, S.B. (2000) Biomass Technologies in Ghana. The Ninth Biennial Bioenergy Conference 2000, New York, 15-19 October 2000.
[115]
Soudham, V.P. (2015) Biochemical Conversion of Biomass to Biofuels. Umeå University, Umeå.
[116]
Lin, Y. and Tanaka, S. (2006) Ethanol Fermentation from Biomass Resources: Current State and Prospects. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 69, 627-642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-005-0229-x
[117]
Mussatto, S.I. and Teixeira, J.A. (2010) Lignocellulose as Raw Material in Fermentation Processes. Current Research Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, 2, 897-907.
[118]
Soudham, V.P., Raut, D.G., Anugwom, I., Brandberg, T., Larsson, C. and Mikkola, J.P. (2015) Coupled Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Ethanol Fermentation: Ionic Liquid Pretreatment for Enhanced Yields. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 8, pp. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-015-0310-3
[119]
Martínez-Patiño, J.C., Ruiz, E., Cara, C., Romero, I. and Castro, E. (2018) Advanced Bioethanol Production from Olive Tree Biomass Using Different Bioconversion Schemes. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 137, 172-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2018.06.002
[120]
Sindhu, R., Binod, P. and Pandey, A. (2016) Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass—An Overview. Bioresource Technology, 199, 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.030
[121]
El-Dalatony, M.M., et al. (2019) Whole Conversion of Microalgal Biomass into Biofuels through Successive High-Throughput Fermentation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 360, 797-805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.12.042
[122]
Abo-State, M.A., Ragab, A.M.E., EL-Gendy, N.S., Farahat, L.A. and Madian, H.R. (2014) Bioethanol Production from Rice Straw Enzymatically Saccharified by Fungal Isolates, Trichoderma viride F94 and Aspergillus terreus F98. Soft, 3, 19-29. https://doi.org/10.4236/soft.2014.32003
[123]
Malça, J. and Freire, F. (2006) Renewability and Life-Cycle Energy Efficiency of Bioethanol and Bio-Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (bioETBE): Assessing the Implications of Allocation. Energy, 31, 3362-3380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.03.013
[124]
Koç, M., Sekmen, Y., Topgül, T. and Yücesu, H.S. (2009) The Effects of Ethanol-Unleaded Gasoline Blends on Engine Performance and Exhaust Emissions in a Spark-Ignition Engine. Renewable Energy, 34, 2101-2106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2009.01.018
[125]
Al-Hasan, M. (2003) Effect of Ethanol-Unleaded Gasoline Blends on Engine Performance and Exhaust Emission. Energy Conversion and Management, 44, 1547-1561. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(02)00166-8
[126]
Hsieh, W.D., Chen, R.H., Wu, T.L. and Lin, T.H. (2002) Engine Performance and Pollutant Emission of an SI Engine Using Ethanol-Gasoline Blended Fuels. Atmospheric Environment, 36, 403-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00508-8
[127]
Wang, J. and Yin, Y. (2018) Fermentative Hydrogen Production Using Various Biomass-Based Materials as Feedstock. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 92, 284-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.033
[128]
Mbajiuka, C.S., Ifediora, A.C., Onwuakor, C.E. and Nwokoji, L.I. (2015) Fermentation of Pods of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L) Using Palm Wine Yeasts for the Production of Alcohol and Biomass. American Journal of Microbiological Research, 3, 80-84.
[129]
Cabral, M.M.S., de Souza. Abud, A.K., de Farias. Silva, C.E. and Almeida, R.M.R.G. (2016) Bioethanol Production from Coconut Husk Fiber. Ciência Rural, 46, 1872-1877. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20151331
[130]
Demirbas, A. (2000) Mechanisms of Liquefaction and Pyrolysis Reactions of Biomass. Energy Conversion and Management, 41, 633-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(99)00130-2
[131]
Pang, S. (2018) Advances in Thermochemical Conversion of Woody Biomass to Energy, Fuels and Chemicals. Biotechnology Advances, 37, 589-597.
[132]
Sun, P., Heng, M., Sun, S. and Chen, J. (2010) Direct Liquefaction of Paulownia in Hot Compressed Water: Influence of Catalysts. Energy, 35, 5421-5429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.07.005
[133]
Li, H., et al. (2010) The Formation of Bio-Oil from Sludge by Deoxy-Liquefaction in Super-critical Ethanol. Bioresource Technology, 101, 2860-2866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.10.084
[134]
Yuan, X., Wang, J., Zeng, G., Huang, H., Pei, X. and Li, H. (2011) Comparative Studies of Thermochemical Liquefaction Characteristics of Microalgae Using Different Organic Solvents. Energy, 36, 6406-6412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.09.031
[135]
Dimitriadis, A. and Bezergianni, S. (2017) Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Various Biomass and Waste Feedstocks for Biocrude Production: A State of the Art Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 68, 113-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.120
[136]
Chan, Y.H., Quitain, A.T., Yusup, S., Uemura, Y., Sasaki, M. and Kida, T. (2018) Liquefaction of Palm Kernel Shell in Sub- and Supercritical Water for Bio-Oil Production. Journal of the Energy Institute, 91, 721-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2017.05.009
[137]
Cheng, S., D’Cruz, I., Wang, M., Leitch, M. and Xu, C.C. (2010) Highly Efficient Liquefaction of Woody Biomass in Hot-Compressed Alcohol-Water Co-Solvents. Energy Fuels, 24, 4659-4667. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef901218w
[138]
Behrendt, F., Neubauer, Y., Oevermann, M., Wilmes, B. and Zobel, N. (2008) Direct Liquefaction of Biomass. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 31, 667-677. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.200800077
[139]
Akhtar, J. and Amin, N.A.S. (2011) A Review on Process Conditions for Optimum Bio-Oil Yield in Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 1615-1624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.054
[140]
Kumar, M., Oyedun, A.O. and Kumar, A. (2018) A Review on the Current Status of Various Hydrothermal Technologies on Biomass Feedstock. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 81, 1742-1770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.270
[141]
Yan, Y., Xu, J., Li, T. and Ren, Z. (1999) Liquefaction of Sawdust for Liquid Fuel. Fuel Processing Technology, 60, 135-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3820(99)00026-0
[142]
Brand, S., Frida, R., Kim, S.K., Lee, H., Kim, J. and Sang, B.I. (2013) Supercritical Ethanol as an Enhanced Medium for Lignocellulosic Biomass Liquefaction: Influence of Physical Process Parameters. Energy, 59, 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.06.049
[143]
Huang, H., Yuan, X., Li, B. and Xiao, Y. (2014) Thermochemical Liquefaction Characteristics of Sewage Sludge in Different Organic Solvents. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 109, 176-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2014.06.015
[144]
Gollakota, A.R.K., Kishore, N. and Gu, S. (2018) A Review on Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 81, 1378-1392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.178
[145]
Van Gerpen, J., Shanks, B., Pruszko, R., Clements, D. and Knothe, G. (2004) Biodiesel Production Technology. Contract, 87, 3170-3175.
[146]
Liu, H. (2011) Biomass Fuels for Small and Micro Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems: Resources, Conversion and Applications. In: Beith, R., Ed., Small and Micro Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, 88-122. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857092755.1.88
[147]
Crabbe, E., Nolasco-Hipolito, C., Kobayashi, G., Sonomoto, K. and Ishizaki, A. (2001) Biodiesel Production from Crude Palm Oil and Evaluation of Butanol Extraction and Fuel Properties. Process Biochemistry, 37, 65-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-9592(01)00178-9
[148]
Su, C.H., Nguyen, H.C., Pham, U.K., Nguyen, M.L. and Juan, H.Y. (2018) Biodiesel Production from a Novel Nonedible Feedstock, Soursop (Annona muricata L.) Seed Oil. Energies, 11, Article No. 2562. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562
[149]
Wang, L., Shahbazi, A. and Hanna, M.A. (2011) Characterization of Corn Stover, Distiller Grains and Cattle Manure for Thermochemical Conversion. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35, 171-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.08.018
[150]
Chen, Z., Yu, G., Yuan, X., Wang, Q. and Kan, J. (2015) Improving the Conventional Pelletization Process to Save Energy during Biomass Densification. BioResources, 10, 6576-6585. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.6576-6585
[151]
Stelte, W., Sanadi, A.R., Shang, L., Holm, J.K., Ahrenfeldt, J. and Henriksen, U.B. (2012) Recent Developments in Biomass Pelletization—A Review. BioResources, 7, 4451-4490. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.7.3.Stelte
[152]
Velazquez-Araque, L. and Cárdenas, J. (2016) A Preliminary Study of Pelletized Ecuadorian Cocoa Pod Husk for Its Use as a Source of Renewable Energy. Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 14, 38-42.
[153]
Pradhan, P., Mahajani, S.M. and Arora, A. (2018) Production and Utilization of Fuel Pellets from Biomass: A Review. Fuel Processing Technology, 181, 215-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2018.09.021
[154]
Rajput, S.P., Jadhav, S.V. and Thorat, B.N. (2020) Methods to Improve Properties of Fuel Pellets Obtained from Different Biomass Sources: Effect of Biomass Blends and Binders. Fuel Processing Technology, 199, Article ID: 106255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2019.106255
[155]
Whittaker, C. and Shield, I. (2017) Factors Affecting Wood, Energy Grass and Straw Pellet Durability—A Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 71, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.119
