Gender portrayals in advertisements do not only sell products but they also perpetuate and propagate gender stereotypes as behavioral norms. This study examines the construct of masculinity in television advertisements of alcoholic beverages in Ghana. Relying on earlier scholarship and theoretical standpoints on gender and masculinity in mass media, coupled with a qualitative content analysis design, the study established that adverts of local alcoholic beverages constructed masculinity along the lines of amatory, camaraderie, heroism and aggression. The theme of amatory where men were portrayed in amorous gesticulations and as objects of sexual desire was the most dominant. The study concludes that elements of masculinity and hyper-masculinity are imminent in advertisement of local alcoholic beverages in Ghana and that advertisers deliberately embed these masculinity showings in these advertisements in order to stimulate demand for these products among the male gender. The study however recommends that the over-reliance on portrayals of masculinity in the advertisement of alcoholic beverages can adversely affect sales since women might not be intrigued about patronizing these beverages. Also, these portrayals could influence hyper-masculine tendencies among target market.
References
[1]
Abokhoza, R., Hamdalla, S., & Narula, S. (2019). How Advertising Reflect Culture and Values: A Qualitative Analysis Study. Journal of Content, Community & Communication, 10, 114-122. https://doi.org/10.31620/JCCC.12.19/12
[2]
Adinkrah, M. (2004). Witchcraft Accusations and Female Homicide Victimization in Contemporary Ghana. Violence against Women, 10, 325-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204263419
[3]
Adzovie, D. E., Adzovie, R. H., & Boateng, E. (2019). Gender in Audio-Visual Advertisements in Ghana: A Semiotics Analysis. In World Conference on Social Sciences (pp. 30-42). https://doi.org/10.33422/worldcss.2019.09.542
[4]
Akotia, K., & Anum, T. (2015). Multiple Meanings of Manhood among Boys in Ghana. In S. Tamale (Ed.), African Sexualities (pp. 38-62). Pambazuka Press.
[5]
Alim, H. S., & Smitherman, G. (2012). Articulate While Black: Barack Obama, Language, and Race in the US. Oxford University Press.
[6]
Anwar, S. (2012). Young Consumers’ Attitude towards Television Advertisements in the Internet Age. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2. http://www.zenithresearch.org.in/images/stories/pdf/2012/April/ZIJMR/19_ZIJMR_APRIL12_VOL2_ISSUE4.pdf
[7]
Asare, A. (2013). Alcohol Marketing, Adolescent Drinking and Publication Bias in Longitudinal Studies: A Critical Survey Using Meta-Analysis. Journal of Economic Surveys, 9, 205-256.
[8]
Ayanwale, B., Anderson, P., de Bruijn, A., Angus, K., Gordon, R., Ellor, I., & Hastings, G. (2015). Impact of Alcohol Advertising and Media Exposure on Adolescent Alcohol Use: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies. International Journal of Alcohol and Alcoholism, 44, 229-243. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agn115
[9]
Beasley, K. (2018). Rethinking Hegemonic Masculinity in a Globalizing World. Men and Masculinities, 11, 86-103. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X08315102
[10]
Belitz, A., Grosch, A. J., & Schieberle, D. I. (2008). The Impact of Advertising in Child, Adult and “All Family” RTE Cereal Markets. International Journal of Advertising, 25, 6-10
[11]
Bhat, B. V., & Kingsley, M. K. (2020). Effective Non-Verbal Communication. In S. C. Parija, & B. V. Adkoli (Eds.), Effective Medical Communication: The A, B, C, D, E of It (pp. 39-47). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3409-6_4
[12]
Bomas, S. (2005). The Effects of Advertising on Brand Switching and Repeat Purchasing. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 28-43. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151944
[13]
Bonsu, E. M. (2021). Gender Representation in a Ghana Newspaper: A Corpus Analysis. Social Science Learning Education Journal, 6, 791-802.
[14]
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners. Sage.
[15]
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education and the End of the Critical Consumer. Harvard Educational Review, 73, 309-327. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.73.3.c149w3g81t381p67
[16]
Budd, L. (2018). Getting Real with “Tell It like It Is” Talk Therapy: Hegemonic Masculinity and the Dr. Phil Show. Communication, Culture & Critique, 1, 287-310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-9137.2008.00024.x
[17]
Butler, J. (1988). Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory. Theatre Journal, 40, 519-531. https://doi.org/10.2307/3207893
[18]
Connell, A. B. (2005). Masculinity, Power and Identity. In M. Macan Ghail (Ed.), Understanding Masculinities (pp. 97-113). Open University Press.
[19]
Courtenay, L. (2000). Constructions of Masculinity and Their Influence on Men’s Wellbeing: A Theory of Gender and Health. Social Science & Medicine, 50, 1385-1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1
[20]
Craig, R. S. (1992). The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis. Sex Roles, 26, 197-211. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289707
[21]
Croteau, D., & Hoynes, W. (2018). Media & Society: Industries, Images and Audiences. Sage.
[22]
Czeremki, M. (2020). Between Myth and Brand. Aspects of Myth in Marketing Communication. Studia Religiologica, 53, 239-253. https://doi.org/10.4467/20844077SR.20.017.12757
[23]
Danciu, V. (2014). Manipulative Marketing: Persuasion and Manipulation of the Consumer through Advertising. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 21, 19-34.
[24]
De-Mooij, F., & Hofstede, J. (2016). What It Means to Be a Man: Examining Hegemonic Masculinity in Two and a Half Men. Communication, Culture & Critique, 3, 526-548. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-9137.2010.01084.x
[25]
Derks, F. K. (2011). The Validity of Self-Reports of Alcohol Consumption: State of the Science and Challenges for Research. African Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 7, 17-27.
[26]
Diabah, G. (2015). From “Recharger” to “Gidi-Power” The Representation of Male Sexual Power in Ghanaian Radio Commercials. Critical Discourse Studies, 12, 377-397. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2014.991798
[27]
Diabah, G. (2019). The Representation of Women in Ghanaian Radio Commercials: Sustaining or Challenging Gender Stereotypes? Language in Society, 48, 261-283. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404518001343
[28]
Diabah, G., & Amfo, N. A. A. (2018). To Dance or Not to Dance Masculinities in Akan Proverbs and Their Implications for Contemporary Societies. Ghana Journal of Linguistics, 7, 179-198. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjl.v7i2.8
[29]
Diabah, G., & Appiah Amfo, N. A. (2015). Caring Supporters or Daring Usurpers? Representation of Women in Akan Proverbs. Discourse & Society, 26, 3-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926514541343
[30]
Donkoh, E. K., Davis, R., Owusu-Ansah, E. D., Antwi, E. A., & Mensah, M. (2019). Application of Combinatorial Techniques to the Ghanaian Board Game Zaminamina Draft. European Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 12, 159-175. https://doi.org/10.29020/nybg.ejpam.v12i1.3308
[31]
Dumbili, E., & Williams, C. (2017). Drinking Game Participation, Gender Performance and Normalization of Intoxication among Nigerian University Students. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 5, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2016.11.002
[32]
Eckert, C. L., & McConnell-Ginet, K. (2013). Outdoor Alcohol Advertising near Schools: What Does It Advertise and How Is It Related to Intentions and Use of Alcohol among Young Adolescents? Journal of Studies of Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 587-596. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2007.68.587
[33]
Edley, K., & Wetherell, J. (1996). Division of Labour in Society. The Free Press of Glencoe.
[34]
Falebita, O., Ogunlusi, F., & Adetunji, A. (2020). A Review of Advertising Management and Its Impact on Consumer Behaviour. International Journal of Agriculture Innovation, Technology and Globalisation, 1, 354-374. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJAITG.2020.111885
[35]
Fordjour, E. A. (2016). Foul Language in the Ghanaian Electronic Media: A Case Study of Some Selected Radio Stations in Kumasi, Ghana. International Conference on Management, Communication and Technology, 4, 26-32.
[36]
Franco, Z. E., Blau, K., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Heroism: A Conceptual Analysis and Differentiation between Heroic Action and Altruism. Review of General Psychology, 15, 99-113. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022672
[37]
Gilly, L. (2010). What It Means to Be a Man: Examining Hegemonic Masculinity in Two and a Half Men. Communication, Culture & Critique, 3, 526. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-9137.2010.01084.x
[38]
Grammer, K., Kruck, K., Juette, A., & Fink, B. (2000). Non-Verbal Behavior as Courtship Signals: The Role of Control and Choice in Selecting Partners. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 371-390. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00053-2
[39]
Hall, G., & Kappel, R. (2018). Gender, Alcohol, and the Media: The Portrayal of Men and Women in Alcohol Commercials. The Sociological Quarterly, 59, 571-583. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2018.1479204
[40]
Jernigan, D. H. (2009). The Global Alcohol Industry: An Overview. Addiction, 104, 6-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02430.x
[41]
Jones, S. C., & Donovan, R. J. (2001). Messages in Alcohol Advertising Targeted to Youth. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 25, 126-131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-6405.2001.tb01833.x
[42]
Karklina, A. C. (2015). Ownership of Alcohol Branded Merchandise and Initiation of Teen Drinking. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30, 277-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2005.11.004
[43]
Kelley, K., & Jugenheimer, J. (2008). Advertising, Gender and Sex: What’s Wrong with a Little Objectification? http://www.rutjhally.com/articles/whatswrongwithalit
[44]
Kicova, E., Bartosova, V., & Popp, J. (2020). The Impact of TV Advertising on Brand Credibility. In N. Tsounis, & A. Vlachvei (Eds.), Advances in Cross-Section Data Methods in Applied Economic Research (pp. 605-614). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38253-7_39
[45]
Kilmartin, C. (2017). Being Better and Doing Better: Men’s Health and Mental Health on Campus. About Campus, 22, 12-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.21283
[46]
Knudsen, G., & Andersen, L. (2020). Changing Masculinity, One Ad at a Time. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture 15, 63-78. https://doi.org/10.16997/wpcc.382
[47]
Kolbe, J., & Albanese, L. (1997). Advertising and Alcohol Sakes: A Legal Impact Study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 555-567. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1991.52.555
[48]
Kossakowski, R., Antonowicz, D., & Jakubowska, H. (2020). The Reproduction of Hegemonic Masculinity in Football Fandom: An Analysis of the Performance of Polish Ultras. In R. Magrath, J. Cleland, & E. Anderson (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Masculinity and Sport (pp. 517-536). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19799-5_29
[49]
Lukas, K. (2002). From “Recharger” to “Gidi-Power”: The Representation of Male Sexual Power in Ghanaian Radio Commercials. Critical Discourse Studies, 20, 1-21.
[50]
Mayer, F. W. (2014). Narrative Politics: Stories and Collective Action. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199324460.001.0001
[51]
Mntambo, N. (2013). Representations and Constructions of Masculinity among Male University Students: An Explorative Study. Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus.
[52]
Moorthy, A. V., & Madevan, P. A. (2014). A Study on Influence of Advertising in Consumer Brand Preference. International Journal of Business and Administration Research Review, 2, 69-76.
[53]
Nelson, J. P. (2018). Do Advertising Bans Work? An International Comparison. International Journal of Advertising, 20, 273-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2001.11104894
[54]
Nowosenetz, T. (2008). The Construction of Masculinity and Femininity in Alcohol Advertisements in Men’s Magazines in South Africa: A Discourse Analysis. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pretoria.
[55]
O’Barr, W. M. (2015). What Is Advertising? Advertising & Society Review, 16. https://doi.org/10.1353/asr.2015.0019
[56]
Ofosu-Boateng, K. (2019). Consumers’ Perception of the Effectiveness of Short Message Service (SMS) and Multimedia Message Service (MMS) as Marketing Tools. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 205, 1-25.
[57]
Owusu, A. (2014). Better Dead than Dishonored: Masculinity and Male Suicidal Behaviour in Contemporary Ghana. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 474-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.10.011
[58]
Rate, C. R., Clarke, J. A., Lindsay, D. R., & Sternberg, R. J. (2007). Implicit Theories of Courage. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 80-98. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701228755
[59]
Rohlinger, D. A. (2002). Eroticizing Men: Cultural Influences on Advertising and Male Objectification. Sex Roles, 46, 61-74. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016575909173
[60]
Rudy, R. M., Popova, L., & Linz, D. G. (2010). The Context of Current Content Analysis of Gender Roles: An Introduction to a Special Issue. Sex Roles, 62, 705-720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9807-1
[61]
Sanders, J., & Van Krieken, K. (2018). Exploring Narrative Structure and Hero Enactment in Brand Stories. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article No. 1645. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01645
[62]
Schippers, M. (2007). Recovering the Feminine Other: Masculinity, Femininity, and Gender Hegemony. Theory and Society, 36, 85-102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-007-9022-4
[63]
Seltzer, L. J., Prososki, A. R., Ziegler, T. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2012). Instant Messages vs. Speech: Hormones and Why We Still Need to Hear Each Other. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 42-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.004
[64]
Shapiro, B. T., Hitsch, G. J., & Tuchman, A. E. (2021). TV Advertising Effectiveness and Profitability: Generalizable Results from 288 Brands. Econometrica, 89, 1855-1879. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA17674
[65]
Sharma, S., & Bumb, A. (2021). Role Portrayal of Women in Advertising: An Empirical Study. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 22, 236-255.
[66]
Soberman, D. A., & Xiang, Y. (2022). Designing the Content of Advertising in a Differentiated Market. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 39, 190-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2021.06.005
[67]
Sommers-Flanagan, R., Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Davis, B. (1993). What’s Happening on Music Television? A Gender Role Content Analysis. Sex Roles, 28, 745-753. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289991
[68]
Straubhaar, J. (2021). Cultural Proximity. In The Routledge Handbook of Digital Media and Globalization (pp. 24-33). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367816742-4
[69]
Tamba, J. K. (2017). The Portrayal of Women in Local and Multinational Brands’ Advertisements in Ghana: A Comparative Content Analysis. Thesis, University of Ghana.
[70]
Towns, J., Christy, P., & Phillip, C. (2012). Constructions of Masculinity in Alcohol Advertising: Implications for the Prevention of Domestic Violence. Addiction Research and Theory, 20, 389-401. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2011.648973
[71]
Tsegah, M. (2009). The Portrayal of Women in Televison Advertisment: A Study of Ghana Television and TV3 from January to December 2007. Master’s Thesis, University of Ghana.
[72]
Vigorito, P., & Curry, N. (1998). Consumers’ Perception of the Effectiveness of Short Message Service (SMS) and Multimedia Message Service (MMS) as Marketing Tools. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.
[73]
Wedgwood, N. (2009). Connell’s Theory of Masculinity—Its Origins and Influences on the Study of Gender. Journal of Gender Studies, 18, 329-339. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589230903260001
[74]
Wetherell, M., & Edley, N. (1998). Gender Practices: Steps in the Analysis of Men and Masculinities. In K. Henwood, C. Griffin, & A. Phoenix (Eds.), Standpoints and Differences: Essays in the Practice of Feminist Psychology (pp. 156–173). Sage Publications Ltd.
[75]
Yilmaz, O. (2010). The Effect of Dominant Ideology on Media: The Syria Case. The European Journal of Social & Behavioural Sciences, 11, 24-65.
[76]
Zenith (2021). Business Intelligence: Alcohol: Beer and Spirits. Zenith Media. https://www.zenithmedia.com/insights/business-intelligence-alcohol-beer-spirits
[77]
Zhao, J., Butt, R. S., Murad, M., Mirza, F., & Saleh Al-Faryan, M. A. (2022). Untying the Influence of Advertisements on Consumers Buying Behavior and Brand Loyalty through Brand Awareness: The Moderating Role of Perceived Quality. Frontiers in psychology, 12, Article ID: 803348. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.803348
