The skin is a formidable physical and biological barrier which communicates continuously with the outside of the body. And the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of human epidermis, plays a central role in the interaction between the cutaneous tissue and the external environment. The horny layer, and more generally the whole skin layers, avoid the penetration of harmful exogenous agents, produce molecules named anti-microbial peptides which impact the composition of the cutaneous microbiota, regulate the internal corporal temperature, avoid the water loss from the inside of the body and constitute an incredible efficient anti-oxidant network. Nevertheless, nowadays, the skin is more and more solicited by the different elements of the cutaneous exposome, including atmospheric pollution and solar radiations, which can cause a dramatic acceleration of the skin ageing process. As a consequence, due to the multifunctional protective role of the skin, during the recent decade the cosmetic industry invested massively in the development of new raw materials and end-products (dermo-cosmetics) able to preserve an optimal state of the skin regarding the external environment. Based on their physical-chemical properties thermal spring waters, which are extremely rich in inorganics ions, are interesting and powerful candidates to be part, as integral component, of new efficient dermo-cosmetic formulations dedicated to protect the skin from the external stimuli. The aim of the present work was to investigate and characterize the activity of Jonzac thermal spring water on the skin. Using different models, we proved for the first time that Jonzac thermal spring water reinforces the barrier function of the skin by modulating the expression of key markers including filaggrin and human beta defensin 2 on ex vivo human skin. The ex vivo and in vivo hydration activity, by Raman spectroscopy and corneometry respectively, has been also demonstrated. We have also shown that Jonzac thermal spring water ameliorates significantly the cutaneous microrelief in vivo. To conclude, we characterize the soothing effect of Jonzac thermal spring water by the analysis of histamine release in Substance P treated skin explants and by measuring the redness of the skin following UV exposure of the skin in vivo. We observed that both parameters decreased following a preventive treatment of the skin with Jonzac thermal spring water. Taken together our results indicate that Jonzac thermal spring water is a promising and powerful
References
[1]
Elias, P.M. (1983) Epidermal Lipids Barrier Function and Desquamation. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 80, 44-49. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1983.12
[2]
Menon, G.K., Cleary, G.W. and Lane, M.E. (2012) The Structure and Function of the Stratum Corneum. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 435, 3-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2012.06.005
[3]
Elias, P.M., Feingold, K.R. and Fluhr, J.W. (2003) Skin as an Organ of Protection. In: Freedberg, I.M., Eisen, A.Z., Wolff, K., Austen, K.F., Goldsmith, L.A. and Katz, S.I., Eds., Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine (6th Edition), Mc-Graw Hill, New York, 107-118.
[4]
Wertz, P.W. (2018) Lipids and the Permeability and Antimicrobial Barriers of the Skin. Journal of Lipids, 2018, Article ID: 5954034. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5954034
[5]
Jenei, A., Kalló, G., Dajnoki, Z., Gáspár, K., Szegedi, A., Kapitány, A. and Csősz, é. (2021) Detection of Antimicrobial Peptides in Stratum Corneum by Mass Spectrometry. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, Article 4233. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22084233
[6]
Thiele, J.J., Schroeter, C., Hsieh, S.N., Podda, M. and Packer, L. (2001) The Antioxidant Network of the Stratum Corneum. Current Problems in Dermatology, 29, 26-42. https://doi.org/10.1159/000060651
[7]
De Simone, C., Masini, C., Cattaruzza, M.S., Guerriero, C., Cerimele, D. and Norval, M. (2001) Urocanic Acid Isomers in Patients with Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer. British Journal of Dermatology, 144, 858-861. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.2001.04145.x
[8]
Cork, M.J., Danby, S.G., Vasilopoulos, Y., Hadgraft, J., Lane, M.E., Moustafa, M., Guy, R.H., Macgowan, A.L., Tazi-Ahnini, R. and Ward, S.J. (2009) Epidermal Barrier Dysfunction in Atopic Dermatitis. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 129, 1892-1908. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.133
[9]
Orsmond, A., Bereza-Malcolm, L., Lynch, T., March, L. and Xue, M. (2021) Skin Barrier Dysregulation in Psoriasis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, Article 10841. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910841
[10]
Medgyesi, B., Dajnoki, Z., Béke, G., Gáspár, K., Szabó, I.L., Janka, E.A., Póliska, S., Hendrik, S., Méhes, G., Törőcsik, D., Bíró, T., Kapitány, A. and Szegedi, A. (2020) Rosacea Is Characterized by a Profoundly Diminished Skin Barrier. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 140, 1938-1950.E5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2020.02.025
[11]
Huang, N., Mi, T., Xu, S., Dadd, T., Ye, X., Chen, G., Du, Y. and Santhanam, U. (2020) Traffic-Derived Air Pollution Compromises Skin Barrier Function and Stratum Corneum Redox Status: A Population Study. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 19, 1751-1759. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13194
[12]
Petracca, B., Nădăban, A., Eeman, M., Gooris, G.S. and Bouwstra, J.A. (2021) Effects of Ozone on Stratum Corneum Lipid Integrity and Assembly. Chemistry and Physics of Lipids, 240, Article ID: 105121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2021.105121
[13]
Lipsky, Z.W. and German, G.K. (2019) Ultraviolet Light Degrades the Mechanical and Structural Properties of Human Stratum Corneum. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 100, Article ID: 103391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.103391
[14]
Ansary, T.M., Hossain, M.R., Kamiya, K., Komine, M. and Ohtsuki, M. (2021) Inflammatory Molecules Associated with Ultraviolet Radiation-Mediated Skin Aging. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22, Article 3974. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22083974
[15]
Araviiskaia, E., Berardesca, E., Bieber, T., Gontijo, G., Sanchez Viera, M., Marrot, L., Chuberre, B. and Dreno, B. (2019) The Impact of Airborne Pollution on Skin. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 33, 1496-1505. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.15583
[16]
Masutani, Y., Takai, T., Kamijo, S., Kimitsu, T., Yoshimura, T., Ichikawa, S., Shimizu, S., Ogawa, T., Takada, K., Tominaga, M., Suto, H., Takamori, K., Ogawa, H., Okumura, K. and Ikeda, S. (2022) Skin Treatment with Detergent Induces Dermatitis with H1-Antihistamine-Refractory Itch and Upregulates IL-4 and Th17/Th22 Cytokine Gene Expression in C57BL/6 Mice. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 183, 1040-1049. https://doi.org/10.1159/000525656
[17]
Del Rosso, J.Q. (2009) The Use of Moisturizers as an Integral Component of Topical Therapy for Rosacea: Clinical Results Based on the Assessment of Skin Characteristics Study. Cutis, 84, 72-76.
[18]
Lodén, M. (2003) Role of Topical Emollients and Moisturizers in the Treatment of dry Skin Barrier Disorders. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology, 4, 771-788. https://doi.org/10.2165/00128071-200304110-00005
[19]
Frankel, A., Sohn, A., Patel, R.V. and Lebwohl, M. (2011) Bilateral Comparison Study of Pimecrolimus Cream 1% and a Ceramide-Hyaluronic Acid Emollient Foam in the Treatment of Patients with Atopic Dermatitis. Journal of Drugs in Dermatolog, 10, 666-672.
[20]
Levin, J. and Miller, R. (2011) A Guide to the Ingredients and Potential Benefits of Over-the-Counter Cleansers and Moisturizers for Rosacea Patients. The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 8, 31-49.
[21]
Liang, J., Kang, D., Wang, Y., Yu, Y., Fan, J. and Takashi, E. (2015) Carbonate Ion-Enriched Hot Spring Water Promotes Skin Wound Healing in Nude Rats. PLOS ONE, 10, e0117106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117106
[22]
Ferreira, M.O., Costa, P.C. and Bahia, M.F. (2010) Effect of São Pedro do Sul Thermal Water on Skin Irritation. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 32, 205-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2010.00527.x
[23]
Joly, F., Gardille, C., Barbieux, E. and Lefeuvre, L. (2012) Beneficial Effect of a Thermal Spring Water on the Skin Barrier Recovery after Injury: Evidence for Claudin-6 Expression in Human Skin. Journal of Cosmetics, Dermatological Sciences and Applications, 2, 273-276. https://doi.org/10.4236/jcdsa.2012.24052
[24]
Bacle, I., Meges, S., Lauze, C., Macleod, P. and Dupuy, P. (199) Sensory Analysis of Four Medical Spa Spring Waters Containing Various Mineral Concentrations. International Journal of Dermatology, 38, 784-786. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-4362.1999.00789.x
[25]
Barut, I.F., Erdogan, N. and Basak, E. (2004) Hydrogeochemical Evaluation of Western Anatolian Mineral Waters. Environmental Geology, 45, 494-503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-003-0904-0
[26]
Soroka, Y., Ma'or, Z., Leshem, Y., Verochovsky, L., Neuman, R., Brégégère, F.M. and Milner, Y. (2008) Aged Keratinocyte Phenotyping: Morphology, Biochemical Markers and Effects of Dead Sea Minerals. Experimental Gerontology, 43, 947-957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2008.08.003
[27]
Chalie, L. (1984) Contribution à l’étude de l’eau de la source heurtbise à Jonzac. A propos d’un essai préliminaire portant sur 47 cas de rhumatologie. Ph.D. Thesis, Université de Bordeaux II, Bordeaux.
[28]
Fumeau-Demay, P. (1987) Contribution à l’étude de l’eau de la source Soenna à Jonzac. A propos d’un essai préliminaire de type ouvert sur 100 cas de pathologies des muqueuses respiratoires. Ph.D. Thesis, Université de Bordeaux II, Bordeaux.
[29]
Percoco, G., Merle, C., Jaouen, T., Ramdani, Y., Bénard, M., Hillion, M., Mijouin, L., Lati, E., Feuilloley, M., Lefeuvre, L., Driouich, A. and Follet-Gueye, M.L. (2013) Antimicrobial Peptides and Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines Are Differentially Regulated across Epidermal Layers Following Bacterial Stimuli. Experimental Dermatology, 22, 800-886. https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.12259
[30]
Clarys, P., Clijsen, R., Taeymans, J. and Barel, A.O. (2012) Hydration Measurements of the Stratum Corneum: Comparison between the Capacitance Method (Digital Version of the Corneometer CM 825®) and the Impedance Method (Skicon-200EX®). Skin Research and Technology, 18, 316-323. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0846.2011.00573.x
[31]
Gasser, P., Peno-Mazzarino, L., Lati, E. and Djian, B. (2004) Original Semiologic Standardized Evaluation of Stratum Corneum Hydration by Diagnoskin Stripping Sample. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 26, 117-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2004.00209.x
[32]
Corcuff, P., Lévêque, J.L., Grove, G.L. and Kligman, A.M. (1987) The Impact of Aging on the Microrelief of Peri-Orbital and Leg Skin. Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists, 82, 145-152.
[33]
Corcuff, P., Francois, A.M., Lévêque, J.L. and Porte, G. (1998) Microrelief Changes in Chronically Sun-Exposed Human Skin. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine, 5, 92-95.
[34]
Krutmann, J., Bouloc, A., Sore, G., Bernard, B.A. and Passeron, T. (2017) The Skin Aging Exposome. Journal of Dermatological Science, 85, 152-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2016.09.015
[35]
Figueiredo, A.C., Márcio Rodrigues, M.M. and Araujo, A.R.T.S. (2023) Thermal Spring Waters as an Active Ingredient in Cosmetic Formulations. Cosmetics, 10, Article 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10010027
[36]
Portalès, P., Ariès, M.F., Licu, D., Pinton, J., Hernandez-Pion, C., Gall, Y., Dupuy. P., Charveron, M. and Clot, J. (2001) Immunomodulation Induced by Avène Spring Water on Th1- and Th2-Dependent Cytokine Production in Healthy Subjects and Atopic Dermatitis Patients. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 14, 234-242. https://doi.org/10.1159/000056352
[37]
Zöller, N., Valesky, E., Hofmann, M., Bereiter-Hahn, J., Bernd, A., Kaufmann, R., Meissner, M. and Kippenberger, S. (2015) Impact of Different Spa Waters on Inflammation Parameters in Human Keratinocyte HaCaT Cells. Annals of Dermatology, 27, 709-714. https://doi.org/10.5021/ad.2015.27.6.709
[38]
Dechelette, C., Belaubre, F., Julie, S. and Charveron, M. (2007) Avène Thermal Spring Water Enhances Normal Human Keratinocyte Differentiation. Proceedings of the Poster at 21st World Congress of Dermatology, Buenos Aires, 30 September-5 October 2007.
[39]
Charveron, M., Baudoin, C., Ariès, M. and Gall, Y. (2002) In vitro Evaluation of the Avène Spring Water Effect on Oxygen Radical Generations. Proceedings of the Poster at 20th World Congress of Dermatology, Paris, 1-5 July 2002.
[40]
Mias, C., Maret, A., Gontier, E., Carrasco, C., Satge, C., Bessou-Touya, S., Coubetergues, H., Bennett-Kennett, R., Dauskardt, R.H. and Duplan, H. (2020) Protective Properties of Avène Thermal Spring Water on Biomechanical, Ultrastructural and Clinical Parameters of Human Skin. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 34, 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.16450
[41]
Grether-Beck, S., Mühlberg, K., Brenden, H., Felsner, I., Brynjólfsdóttir, á., Einarsson, S. and Krutmann, J. (2008) Bioactive Molecules from the Blue Lagoon: In vitro and in vivo Assessment of Silica Mud and Microalgae Extracts for Their Effects on Skin Barrier Function and Prevention of Skin Ageing. Experimental Dermatology, 17, 771-779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2007.00693.x
[42]
Chiarini, A., Dal Pra, I., Pacchiana, R., Zumiani, G., Zanoni, M. and Armato, U. (2006) Comano’s (Trentino) Thermal Water Interferes with Interleukin-6 Production and Secretion and with Cytokeratin-16 Expression by Cultured Human Psoriatic Keratinocytes: Further Potential Mechanisms of Its Anti-Psoriatic Action. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 18, 1073-1079. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.18.6.1073
[43]
Dal Pra, I., Chiarini, A., Pacchiana, R., Zumiani, G., Zanoni, M. and Armat, U. (2007) Comano’s (Trentino) Thermal Water Interferes with Tumour Necrosis Factor-α Expression and Interleukin-8 Production and Secretion by Cultured Human Psoriatic Keratinocytes: Yet Other Mechanisms of Its Anti-Psoriatic Action. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 19, 373-379. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.19.3.373
[44]
Portugal-Cohen, M., Soroka, Y., Ma’or, Z., Oron, M., Zioni, T., Brégégère, F.M., Neuman, R., Kohen, R. and Milner, Y. (2009) Protective Effects of a Cream Containing Dead Sea Minerals against UVB-Induced Stress in Human Skin. Experimental Dermatology, 18, 781-788. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2009.00865.x
[45]
Rougier, A. and Richard, A. (2012) A Selenium-Rich Spring Water Prevents UV and Chemically Induced Inflammation. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 66, AB68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2011.11.289
[46]
Guenich, A., Valois, A., Kerob, D., Rasmont, V. and Nielsen, M. (2022) A Combination of Vitreoscilla Filiformis Extract and Vichy Volcanic Mineralizing Water Strengthens the Skin Defenses and Skin Barrier. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 36, 16-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.17786
[47]
Ma’or, Z., Henis, Y., Alon, Y., Orlov, E., Sorensen, K.B. and Oren, A. (2006) Antimicrobial Properties of Dead Sea Black Mineral Mud. International Journal of Dermatology, 45, 504-511. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02621.x
[48]
Gannese, A., Borrel, V., Lefeuvre, L., Netrusov, A.I., Plakunov, V.K. and Feuilloley, M.G.J. (2019) Effect of Two Cosmetic Compounds on the Growth, Biofilm Formation Activity, and Surface Properties of Acneic Strains of Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus aureus. MicrobiologyOpen, 8, e00659. https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.659
[49]
Yuspa, S.H., Kilkenny, A.E., Steinert, P.M. and Roop, D.R. (1989) Expression of Murine Epidermal Differentiation Markers Is Tightly Regulated by Restricted Extracellular Calcium Concentrations in vitro. Journal of Cell Biology, 109, 1207-1217. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.109.3.1207
[50]
Hennings, H., Michael, D., Cheng, C., Steinert, P., Holbrook, K. and Yuspa, S.H. (1980) Calcium Regulation of Growth and Differentiation of Mouse Epidermal Cells in Culture. Cell, 19, 245-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(80)90406-7
[51]
Pillai, S., Bikle, D.D., Hincenbergs, M. and Elias, P.M. (1988) Biochemical and Morphological Characterization of Growth and Differentiation of Normal Human Neonatal Keratinocytes in a Serum-Free Medium. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 134, 229-237. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1041340208
[52]
Presland, R.B., Bassuk, J.A., Kimball, J.R. and Dale, B.A. (1995) Characterization of Two Distinct Calcium-Binding Sites in the Amino-Terminus of Human Profilaggrin. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 104, 218-223. https://doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12612770
[53]
Pernet, I., Reymermier, C., Guezennec, A., Branka, J.E., Guesnet, J., Perrier, E., Dezutter-Dambuyant, C., Schmitt, D. and Viac, J. (2003) Calcium Triggers β-Defensin (hBD-2 and hBD-3) and Chemokine Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-3α (MIP-3α/CCL20) Expression in Monolayers of Activated Human Keratinocytes. Experimental Dermatology, 12, 755-760. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0906-6705.2003.00086.x
[54]
Watkinson, A., Harding, C., Moore, A. and Coan, P. (2001) Water Modulation of Stratum Corneum Chymotryptic Enzyme Activity and Desquamation. Archives of Dermatological Research, 293, 470-476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004030100257
[55]
Shim, W.S. and Oh, U. (2008) Histamine-Induced Itch and Its Relationship with Pain. Molecular Pain, 4, 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8069-4-29
[56]
Thangam, E.B., Jemima, E.A., Singh, H., Baig, M.S., Khan, M., Mathias, C.B., Church, M.K. and Saluja, R. (2018) The Role of Histamine and Histamine Receptors in Mast Cell-Mediated Allergy and Inflammation: The Hunt for New Therapeutic Targets. Frontiers in Immunology, 9, Article 1873. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.01873
[57]
Zhai, H., Hannon, W., Hahn, G.S., Harper, R.A., Pelosi, A. and Maibach, H.I. (2000) Strontium Nitrate Decreased Histamine-Induced Itch Magnitude and Duration in Man. Dermatology, 200, 244-246. https://doi.org/10.1159/000018367
[58]
Papoiu, A.D., Valdes-Rodriguez, R., Nattkemper, L.A., Chan, Y.H., Hahn, G.S. and Yosipovitch, G. (2013) A Novel Topical Formulation Containing Strontium Chloride Significantly Reduces the Intensity and Duration of Cowhage-Induced Itch. Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 93, 520-526. https://doi.org/10.2340/00015555-1564
[59]
Zhai, H., Hannon, W., Hahn, G.S., Pelosi, A., Harper, R.A. and Maibach, H.I. (2000) Strontium Nitrate Suppresses Chemically-Induced Sensory Irritation in Humans. Contact Dermatitis, 42, 98-100. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0536.2000.042002098.x
