Disaster is a social
phenomenon. The occurrence and impacts of disasters including the education sector can be studied through a social
problem lens. This paper draws meaning and understanding of DRR education using the sociological
disciplinary framework in a detailed qualitative case study of three schools as
they responded to the devastating Gorakha earthquake in 2015 and other
disasters in Nepal. This paper considers the three sub-disciplines of
sociology: the sociology of disaster, the sociology of education and the
sociology of education governance in a development context. These
sub-disciplines are nested together to analyse social, political and historical
factors and their relationships which are helpful to identify risks and
vulnerabilities in the education sector in Nepal. These are the major areas to
explore the disaster context and needs of context-specific
education acts (hereafter DRR education) to minimise the potential risks of
disasters. The article concludes that the social disciplinary
framework is significantly useful to analyse DRR education provisions and
implications of education governance to mobilise school in disaster
preparedness, response and recovery.
References
[1]
Bates, K.A. and Swan, R.S. (2007) A Dangerous Equation: Social Injustice = Social Disaster. In: Bates, K.A. and Swan, R.S., Eds., Through the Eyes of Katrina: Social Justice in the United States, Carolina Academic Press, Durham, 3-14.
[2]
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies [IFRC] (2014) What Is Disaster? International Federation of Red Cross and Crescent Societies. http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/about-disasters/what-is-a-disaster/
[3]
Peacock, W.G. and Ragsdale, A.K. (1997) Sociology System, Ecological Networks and Disasters: Towards a Socio-Political Ecology of Disasters. In: Peacock, W.G., Morrow, B.H. and Gladwin, H., Eds., Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the Sociology of Disasters, Routledge, London and New York, 20-34.
[4]
Morrow, B.H. (1997) Identifying and Mapping Community Vulnerability. Disasters, 23, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7717.00102
[5]
Matthewman, S. (2015) Disasters, Risks and Revelation: Making Sense of Our Times. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137294265
[6]
Weichselgartner, J. and Bertens, J. (2000) Natural Disasters: Acts of God, Nature or Society? On the Social Relation to Natural Hazards. Risk Analysis II. https://www.witpress.com/secure/elibrary/papers/risk00/risk00000fu.pdf
[7]
Oliver-Smith, A. (2020) Hurricanes, Climate Change, and the Social Construction of Risk. International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters, 38, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/028072702003800101
[8]
Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., Davis, I. and Wisner, B. (2014) At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. 2nd Edition, Routledge, New York. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203714775
[9]
Petal, M. (2008) Disasters Preventions for Schools: Guidance for Education Sector Decision Makers. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Thematic Platform for Knowledge and Education. Consultation Version 2008, UNISDR, Geneva.
[10]
Benson, L. and Bugge, J. (2008) Child-Led Disaster Risk Reduction: A Practical Guide. Save the Children, Stockholm. http://lib.riskreductionafrica.org
[11]
UNISDR and GADRRRES (2015) Comprehensive School Safety. A Global Framework in Support of the Global Alliance for Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience in the Education Sector and the Worldwide Initiative for Safe Schools, In Preparation for the 3rd UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction.
[12]
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction [UNISDR] (2005) Hyogo Framework of Action 2005-15: Building Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. UNISDR, Geneva.
[13]
United Nations (2015) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, New York.
[14]
Merriam, S.B. (1998) Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
[15]
Portes, A. (2000) The Hidden Adobe: Sociology as Analysis of the Unexpected. American Review of Sociological Review, 65, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240006500102
[16]
Stallings, R.A. (2002) Weberian Political Sociology and Sociological Disaster Studies. Sociological Forum, 17, 281-305. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016041314043
[17]
Central Bureau of Statistics-CBS (2021) Nepal Census Report. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu.
[18]
Ministry of Home Affairs (2009) Nepal Disaster Report. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Home and Affairs (MoHA), Kathmandu.
[19]
UNDP (2011) Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management Plan. United Nations Development Programme, Kathmandu.
[20]
Ministry of Education (2009) School Sector Reform Programme-SSRP: Core Document (2009-2015). Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Kathmandu.
[21]
Ministry of Home Affairs and United Nations Development (2010) Economic and Financial Decision Making in Disaster Risk Reduction. Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Kathmandu.
[22]
Aksha, S.K., Juran, L., Resler, L.M. and Zhang, Y. (2018) An Analysis of Social Vulnerability to Natural Hazards in Nepal: Using a Modified Social Vulnerability Index. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 10, 103-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-018-0192-7
[23]
Fothergill, A. and Squier, E. (2017) Women and Children in the 2015 Earthquake in Nepal. In: Kruhl, J.H., Adhikari, R. and Dorka, U.E., Eds., Living under the Threat of Earthquakes: Short and Long-Term Management of Earthquake Risks and Damage Prevention in Nepal, Springer, Berlin, 253-271. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68044-6_16
[24]
Tuladhar, G., Yatabe, R., Dahal, R.K. and Bhandary, N.P. (2015) Disaster Risk Reduction Knowledge of Local People in Nepal. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 2, Article No. 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-014-0011-4
[25]
Stash, S. and Hannum, E. (2001) Who Goes to School? Educational Stratification by Gender, Caste, and Ethnicity in Nepal. Comparative Education Review, 45, 354-378. https://doi.org/10.1086/447676
[26]
Parish, S.M. (1996) Hierarchy and Its Discontents: Cultures and the Politics of Consciousness in Caste Society. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512805437
[27]
Subedi, M. (2016) Caste/Ethnic Dimensions of Changes and Inequality: Implications for Inclusive and Affirmative Agendas in Nepal. Nepali Journal of Contemporary Studies, XVI, 1-16. https://www.cmi.no/file/3893-.pdf
[28]
World Bank (2006) World Development Report: Equity and Development. The World Bank and Oxford University Press, Oxford.
[29]
Quarantelli, E.L. and Dynes, R.R. (1977) Response to Social Crisis and Disasters. Annual Review of Sociology, 3, 23-49. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.03.080177.000323
[30]
Fukuwa, N. (2005) Disaster Reduction Starts from Disaster Education. Urban Problem Research, No. 57-1.
[31]
Lintner, T. (2006) Hurricanes and Tsunamis: Teaching about Natural Disasters and Civic Responsibility in Elementary Classrooms. The Social Studies, 97, 101-104. https://doi.org/10.3200/TSSS.97.3.101-104
[32]
Mitchell, T., Tanner, T. and Haynes, K. (2009) Children as Agents of Change for Disaster Risk Reduction: Lesson from El Salvador and the Philippines. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Tanner/publication/228376320_Children_as_Agents_of_Change_for_Disaster_Risk_Reduction_Lessons_from_El_Salvador_and_the_Philippines/links/0f31753732ef35f368000000/Children-as-Agents-of-Change-for-Disaster-Risk-Reduction-Lessons-from-El-Salvador-and-the-Philippines.pdf
[33]
Selby, D. and Kagawa, F. (2012) Disaster Risk Reduction in School Curricula: Case Studies from Thirty Countries. UNESCO and UNICEF, Geneva.
[34]
Shiwaku, H.K., Shaw, R. and Kobayashi, M. (2004) Linking Experience, Education, Perception, and Earthquake Preparedness. An International Journal of Disaster Prevention and Management, 13, 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560410521689
[35]
Save the Children (2016) Education Disrupted: Disaster Impacts on Education in the Asia Pacific Region in 2015. Save the Children, Melbourne.
[36]
Shaw, J.A., Espinel, Z. and Shultz, J.M. (2007) Children: Stress, Trauma and Disaster. Disaster Life Support Publishing, Tampa. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242289180_children_stress_trauma_and_disasters
[37]
Johnson, V.A. and Ronan, K.R. (2014) Classrooms Responses of New Zealand School Teachers Following the 2011 Christchurch Earthquake. Natural Hazards, 72, 1075-1092. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1053-3
[38]
INEE (2010) Minimum Standards for Education: Preparedness, Response, Recovery. Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies, New York. https://spherestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/INEE-EN.pdf
[39]
Tuladhar, G., Yatabe, R., Dahal, R.K. and Bhandary, N.P. (2013) Knowledge of Disaster Risk Reduction among School Students in Nepal. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 5, 190-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2013.809556
[40]
Towers, B., Haynes, K. Sewell, F., Bailie, H. and Cross, D. (2014) Child-Centred Disaster Risk Reduction in Australia: Progress, Gaps and Opportunities. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 29, 31-38.
[41]
Gautam, D. (2010) Good Practices and Lesson Learned, Disaster Risk Reduction through School. Action Aid, Kathmandu. http://www.actionaidusa.org/nepal
[42]
Blaeser, M. (2014) Education Sector Assessment in Nepal to Explore Opportunity for Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction into Education System. DRR Consortium, Save the Children, Kathmandu.
[43]
Gautam, D. (2013) Safe School Policies and Practices: Good Initiatives, Gaps and Way Forward. Research Report, Plan Nepal, Kathmandu.
Dixon, H., Rata, E. and Carpenter, V. (2001) Introduction: Teachers and Theory. In: Carpenter, V., Dixon, H., Rata, E. and Rawlinson, C., Eds., Theory in Practice for Educators, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 9-18.
[46]
Lindell, M.K., Tierney, K.J. and Perry, R.W. (2001) Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United States. Joseph Henry Press, Washington DC.
[47]
Uekusa, S. (2020) The Paradox of Social Capital: A Case of Immigrants, Refugees and Linguistic Minorities in the Canterbury and Tohoku Disasters. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 48, Article 101625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101625
[48]
Kreps, G.A. (1989) Social Structure and Disaster. University of Delaware and Associated University Presses, Newark.
[49]
Quarantelli, E.L. (1999) What Is a Disaster? Routledge, London.
[50]
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T. and Davis, I. (2004) At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. Routledge, New York. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203974575 https://books.google.co.nz/books?isbn=1134528604
[51]
Phillips, B.D. (2014) Qualitative Disaster Research: Understanding Qualitative Research. Oxford University Press, New York. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199796175.001.0001
[52]
Schutt, R.K. (2010) Sociological Perspective of Disasters. International Conference on Rebuilding Sustainable Communities for Children and Their Families after Disasters, Boston, 16-19 November 2008. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237434084_a_sociological_perspective_on_disasters
[53]
Drabek, T.E. (1989) Disasters as Non-Routine Social Problems. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 1, 253-264. https://doi.org/10.1177/028072708900700304
[54]
Quarantelli, E.L. (1996) The Future Is Not the Past Repeated: Projecting Disasters in the 21st Century from Current Trends. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 4, 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5973.1996.tb00097.x
[55]
Masterson, J.H., Peacock, W.G., Van Zandt, S.S., Grover, H., Schwarz, L.F. and Cooper, J.T. (2014) Planning for Community Resilience: A Handbook for Reducing Vulnerability to Disasters. Island Press, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-586-1
[56]
Quarantelli, E.L. (1987) Disaster Studies: An Analysis of the Social Historical Factors Affecting the Development of Research in the Area. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 5, 285-310. https://doi.org/10.1177/028072708700500306
[57]
Drabek, T.E. and McEntire, D.A. (2003) Emergent Phenomenon and the Sociology of Disaster: Lessons, Trends and Opportunities from the Research Literature. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 12, 97-112. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560310474214
[58]
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994) Ecological Models of Human Development. The International Encyclopedia of Education, 3, 1643-1647.
[59]
Twigg, J. (2007) Characteristics of a Disaster-Resilient Community: A Guidance Note (Version 1). http://lib.riskreductionafrica.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/623/characteristics%20of%20a.pdf?sequence=1
[60]
Mitchell, T. and Harris, K. (2012) Resilience: A Risk Management Approach. Overseas Development Institute, London. https://www.sistemaprotezionecivile.it/allegati/1470_Resilience-_A_risk_manag_approach.pdf
[61]
Gladwin, H. and Peacock, W.G. (1997) Warning and Evacuation: A Night for Hard Houses. In: Peacock, W.G., Morrow, B.H. and Gladwin, H., Eds., Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the Sociology of Disasters, Routledge, London and New York, 52-72.
[62]
Averch, H. and Dluhy, M.J. (1997) Crisis Decision Making and Management. In: Peacock, W.G., Morrow, B.H. and Gladwin, H., Eds., Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the Sociology of Disasters, Routledge, New York, 75-91.
[63]
Nigg, J.M. (1995) Disaster Recovery as a Social Process. University of Delaware, Newark.
[64]
Oliver-Smith, A. and Susanna, M.H. (1999) Anthropology and the Angry Earth: An Overview. Routledge, New York. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203821190
[65]
Morrow, B.H. (1997) Stretching the Bonds: The Families of Hurricane Andrew. In: Peacock, W.G., Morrow, B.H. and Gladwin, H., Eds., Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender, and the Sociology of Disasters, Routledge, London and New York, 141-179.
[66]
Kantipur (2016) “Jeevan Jitdaibhayahardai” (Wining the Life Loosing Fear) April 24. http://epaper.ekantipur.com/kantipur/2016-04-24/2
[67]
Fischer, H.W. (1998) Response to Disaster: Facts versus Fiction and Its Perpetuation. The Sociology of Disaster. 2nd Edition, University Press of America, Millburn.
[68]
Cutter, S.L., Boruff, B.J. and Shirley, W.L. (2003) Social Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards. Social Science Quarterly, 84, 242-261. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402002
[69]
Gordon, N., Farberow, N.L. and Maida, C.A. (2013) Children and Disasters. Routledge, New York. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203777985
[70]
Busworth, S. and Kreps, G. (1986) Structure as Process: Organization and Role. American Sociological Review, 51, 699-716. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095494
[71]
Cutter, S.L. (2005) The Geography of Social Vulnerability: Race, Class, and Catastrophe. Understanding Katrina: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. Social Science Research Council, New York. https://items.ssrc.org/understanding-katrina/the-geog-raphy-of-social-vulnerability-race-class-and-catastrophe/
[72]
McCoy, B. and Dash, N. (2013) Class. In: Thomas, D.S.K., Philips, B.D., Lovekamp, W.E. and Fothergill, A., Eds., Social Vulnerability to Disasters, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 83-112.
[73]
Laska, S. and Morrow, B.H. (2006) Social Vulnerabilities and Huricane Katrina: An Unnatural Disaster in New Orleans. Marine Technology Society Journal, 40, 16-26. https://doi.org/10.4031/002533206787353123
[74]
Juran, L. and Trivedi, J. (2015) Women, Gender Norms, and Natural Disasters in Bangladesh. Geographical Review, 105, 601-611. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2015.12089.x
[75]
Birkmann, J. (2006) Measuring Vulnerability to Promote Disaster-Resilient Societies: Conceptual Frameworks and Definitions. In: Birkmann, J., Ed., Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 9-54.
[76]
Cutter, S.L. and Finch, C. (2008) Temporal and Spatial Changes in Social Vulnerability to Natural Hazards. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 2301-2306. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0710375105
[77]
Montz, B.E. and Tobin, G.A. (2011) Natural Hazards: An Evolving Tradition in Applied Geography. Applied Geography, 31, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.06.005
[78]
Hallegatte, S., Adrien, V., Mook, B. and Julie, R. (2017) Unbreakable: Building the Resilience of the Poor in the Face of Natural Disasters. World Bank, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1003-9
[79]
Dash, N., Peacock, W.G. and Morrow, B.H. (1997) And the Poor Get Poorer: A Neglected Black Community. In: Peacock, W.G., Morrow, B.H. and Gladwin, H., Eds., Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the Sociology of Disasters, Routledge, London and New York, 206-224.
[80]
Kc, S. (2013) Community Vulnerability to Floods and Landslides in Nepal. Ecology and Society, 18, Article No. 8. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05095-180108
[81]
Dixit, A. (2003) Floods and Vulnerability: Need to Rethink Flood Management. Natural Hazards, 28, 155-179. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021134218121
[82]
Dixit, A., Upadhya, M., Pokhrel, A., Dixit, K.M., Rai, D.R. and Devkota, M. (2007) Flood Disaster Impacts and Responses in Nepal Tarai’s Marginalized Basins. In: Moench, M. and Dixit, A., Eds., Working with the Winds of Change: Towards Strategies for Responding to the Risks Associated with Climate Change and Other Hazards, Provention Consortium, Kathmandu, 119-158.
[83]
Devkota, R.P., Maraseni, T.N., Cockfield, G. and Devkota, L.P. (2013) Flood Vulnerability through the Eyes of Vulnerable People in Mid-Western Tarai of Nepal. Journal of Earth Science and Climate Change, 4, Article ID: 1000132. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000132
[84]
Hewitt, K. (1997) Regions of Risks: A Geographical Introduction to Disasters. Longman, Singapore.
[85]
Pant, Y.R. (2023) Participation in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) Education: Analysing the Practices, Issues and Challenges. Open Journal of Earthquake Research, 12, 198-222. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojer.2023.124008
[86]
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction [UNISDR] (2009) UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/unisdr-terminology-2009-eng.pdf
[87]
Shriner, M. (2018) Building Disaster Risk Management in Nepal: The Role of the National Society for Earthquake Technology (NEST) Anthropology Honors Projects. http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/anth_honors/30
[88]
Douglas, M. (1992) Risk and Blame: Essays in Cultural Theory. Routledge, New York.
[89]
Douglas, M. and Aaron, W. (1982) Risk and Culture: An Essay on the Selection of Technological and Environmental Dangers. University of California Press, Berkeley.
[90]
Peek, L. (2008) Children and Disasters: Understanding Vulnerability, Developing Capacities and Promoting Resilience—An Introduction. Children, Youth and Environments, 18, 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1353/cye.2008.0052
[91]
Wolfe, A. (1988) Environmental Risk and Anthropology. Practicing Anthropology, 10, 4. https://doi.org/10.17730/praa.10.3-4.m1q2574568q35l27
[92]
Collins, A.E. (2009) Disaster and Development. Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203879238
[93]
Collins, A.E. (2013) Applications of the Disaster Risk Reduction Approach to Migration Influenced by Environmental Change. Environmental Science and Policy, 27, 112-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.005
[94]
Shah, R. (2015) Protecting Children in Situation of Ongoing Conflict: Is Resilience Sufficient as the End Product? International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 14, 179-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2015.06.003
[95]
Dewey, J. (1900) The School and Society. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
[96]
Lopez, G.E., Gurin, P. and Nagda, B.N. (1998) Education and Understanding Structural Cause for Groups Inequalities. Political Psychology, 19, 305-328. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00106
[97]
Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum, New York.
[98]
Hallinan, M.T. (2000) Sociology of Education at the Threshold of the Twenty-First Century. In: Hallinan, M.T., Ed., Handbook of the Sociology of Education, Springer, Berlin, 1-12.
[99]
Apple, M.W., Ball, S.J. and Gandin, L.A. (2010) Mapping the Sociology of Education: Social Context, Power and Knowledge. In: Apple, M.W., Ball, S.J. and Gandin, L.A., Eds., The Routledge International Handbook of the Sociology of Education, Routledge, London, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203863701
[100]
Young, M. (2008) From Constructivism to Realism in the Sociology of the Curriculum. Review of Research in Education, 32, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X07308969
[101]
Beck, J. (2013) Powerful Knowledge, Esoteric Knowledge, Curriculum Knowledge. Cambridge Journal of Education, 43, 177-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2013.767880
[102]
Moore, A. (2012) Teaching and Learning: Pedagogy, Curriculum and Culture. 2nd Edition, Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203134061
[103]
Curtis, M. (2009) A World of Discrimination: Minorities, Indigenous People and Education. State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous People. http://www.minorityrights.org/
[104]
World Bank (2011) World Development Report: Conflict, Security, and Development. The World Bank, Washington DC.
[105]
Amatya, S. (2004) Rana Rule in Nepal. Nirala Publications, Delhi.
[106]
Bista, D.B. (2000) People of Nepal. 7th Edition, Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu.
[107]
Shah, R., Henderson, C. and Couch, D. (2019) Guidance Note: Education Sector Disaster Recovery and Risk Reduction. The World Bank Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery.
[108]
Singh, N.K. (2013) Globalisation and Multilingualism: Case Studies of Indigenous Culture-Base Education from the Indian Sub-Continent and Their Implications. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 15, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v15i1.602
[109]
Banks, J.A. (2015) Cultural Diversity and Education: Foundations, Curriculum and Teaching. Routledge, New York.
[110]
Thomas, C. (2000) Global Governance, Development and Human Security: The Challenge of Poverty and Inequality.
[111]
Webster, A. (1993) Introduction to the Sociology of Development. 2nd Edition, Palgrave, New York.
[112]
Kiely, R. (2013) Sociology and Development: The Impasse and beyond. Routledge, London.
[113]
Asian Development Bank (2009) Nepal Critical Development Constraints. Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28933/main-report.pdf
[114]
UNDP (2023) Nepal Moves up One Place in Human Development, Ranks 143rd. https://www.undp.org/nepal/press-releases/nepal-moves-one-place-human-development-ranks-143rd
[115]
Asian Development Bank (2018) Final Take on Economic and Poverty Impact of Nepal Earthquake. https://blogs.adb.org/blog/final-take-economic-and-poverty-impact-nepal-earthquake#:~:text=the%20report%20shows%20that%20the,living%20below%20the%20poverty%20line
[116]
Gillard, J.C. and Cadag, J.R.D. (2009) From Marginality to Further Marginalization: Experience from the Victims of the July 2000 Payatastrashslide in the Philippines. Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 2, 197-215. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v2i3.27
[117]
Bhatta, P. (2011) Aid Agency Influence in National Education Policy-Making: A Case from Nepal’s “Education for All” Movement. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 9, 11-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2010.513283
[118]
Regmi, K.D. (2016) World Bank in Nepal’s Education: Three Decades of Neoliberal Reform. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 15, 188-201. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2016.1169517
[119]
Dale, R., Robertson, S.L. and Bonal, X. (2002) GATS and the Education Service Industry: The Politics of Scale and Global Reterritorialization. Comparative Education Review, 46, 472-495. https://doi.org/10.1086/343122
[120]
Dale, R. (1999) Specifying Globalization Effect on National Policy: A Focus on the Mechanisms. Journal of Educational Policy, 14, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/026809399286468
[121]
Dale, R. (2005) Globalisation, Knowledge Economy and Comparative Education. Comparative Education, 41, 117-149. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050060500150906
[122]
Forino, G., Meding, J. and Brewer, G.J. (2015) A Hybrid Governance Framework for Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in Australia. In: Perera, S., Gajendran, T. and Revez, A., Eds., Proceedings ANDROID Residential Doctoral School: 5th International Conference on Building Resilience, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, 152-164.
[123]
Rhoten, D. (2000) Education Decentralization in Argentina: A Global-Local Conditions of Possibility Approach to State, Market, and Society Change. Journal of Education Policy, 15, 593-619. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930010000218
[124]
Carnoy, M. (1999) Globalisation and Education Reform: What Planners Need to Know. UNESCO/IIEP, Paris.
[125]
Gropello, E.D. (2006) A Comparative Analysis of School-Based Management in Latin America. World Bank, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-6525-0
[126]
Daun, H. (2007) School Decentralization in the Context of Globalizing Governances: International Comparisons of Grassroots Responses. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4700-8
[127]
Lauglo, J. (1995) Forms of Decentralisation and Their Implication for Education. Comparative Education, 31, 5-29. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050069529182
[128]
McGinn, N. and Welsh, T. (1999) Decentralisation of Education: Why, When, What and How? UNESCO/IIEP, Paris.
[129]
Kelly, M. (2010) The Role of Theory in Qualitative Research. Family Practice, 27, 285-290. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmp077
[130]
Yin, R.K. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 4th Edition, Sage, Thousand Oaks.
[131]
Stake, R.E. (2010) Qualitative Research: Studying How Things Work. The Guildford Press, New York.
[132]
Philips, D. (2005) Policy Borrowing in Education: Frameworks for Analysis. In: Zajda, J., Ed., International Handbook on Globalisation, Education and Policy Research: Global Pedagogies and Policies, Springer, Berlin, 23-34.
[133]
Pherali, T., Smith, A. and Vaux, T. (2011) A Political Economy Analysis (PEA) of Education in Nepal. https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/por-tal/11463127/Pherali_Smith_Vaux_%282011%29AugFull1FINAL-FINAL.pdf
[134]
Ministry of Home Affairs-MoHA (2017) Nepal Disaster Report 2017: The Road to Sendai. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu.
[135]
Marshall, H. (2009) Educating European Citizen in the Global Age: Engaging with the Post-National and Identifying a Research Agenda. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41, 247-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220270802642002
[136]
National Planning Commission (2015) Nepal Earthquake 2015: Post Disaster Needs Assessment. Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission, Kathmandu.
[137]
Carney, S. and Bista, M. (2007) Ideology and Power in Education Policy in Nepal: An Analysis of Reform since 1990. The Comparative and International Education Society Annual Conference, Baltimore, 27 February 2007, 20.
[138]
UNESCAP and UNISDR (2012) Reducing Vulnerability and Exposure to Disasters. The Asia-Pacific Disaster Report 2012.
[139]
GFDRR (2017) Recovery and Reconstruction Roadmap for Safer and More Resilient Schools. Guidance Notes, Global Program for Safer School. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, Washington DC.
[140]
Ratiani, M., Kitiashvili, A., Labartkava, N., Sadunishvili, P., Tsereteli, E. and Gvetadze, N. (2011) Teaching Disaster Risk Reduction with Interactive Methods. National Curriculum and Assessment Centre, Tbilisi.
[141]
Tierney, K. (2012) Disaster Governance: Social, Political and Economic Dimensions. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37, 341-363. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-020911-095618
