Anthropogenic activities have contributed to pollution of water bodies through deposition of diverse pollutants amongst which are heavy metals. These pollutants, which at times are above the maximum concentration levels recommended, are detrimental to the quality of the water, soil and crops (plant) with subsequent human health risks. The objective of the work was to evaluate the impacts of human-based activities on the heavy metal properties of surface water with focus on the Kumba River basin. Field observations, interviews, field measurements and laboratory analyses of different water samples enabled us to collect the different data. The results show four main human-based activities within the river basin (agriculture, livestock production, domestic waste disposal and carwash activities) that pollute surface water. Approximately 20.61 tons of nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural activities, 156.48 tons of animal wastes, 2517.5 tons of domestic wastes and 1.52 tons of detergent from carwash activities were deposited into the river each year. A highly significant difference at 1% was observed between the upstream and downstream heavy metal loads in four of the five heavy metals tested except for copper that was not significant. Lead concentrations were highest in all the activities with an average of 2.4 mg∙L−1 representing 57.81%, followed by zinc with 1.596 mg∙L−1 (38.45%) and manganese with 0.155 mg∙L−1 (3.74%) for the different anthropogenic activities thus indicating that these activities highly lead to pollution of the Kumba River water. The level of zinc and manganese was significantly influenced at ρ 005 by anthropogenic activities though generally the variations were in the order: carwash (3.196 mg∙L−1) < domestic waste disposal (3.347 mg∙L−1) < agriculture (4.172 mg∙L−1) < livestock (4.886 mg∙L−1) respectively and leading to a total of 14.04 tons of heavy metal pollutants deposited each day.
References
[1]
Thai-Hoang, L., Truong, T., Loc, H.T., Van, P.T.T., Thuy, P.T.P. and Tran, L.T. (2022) Influences of Anthropogenic Activities on Water Quality in the Saigon River, Ho Chi Minh City. Journal of Water and Health, 20, 491-504. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.233
[2]
UNEP (2016) A Snapshot of the World’s Water Quality: Towards a Global Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi.
[3]
Rodrigues, T., Anthony, J., Wandiga, S.O., Francis, O.O. and Enos, W.W. (2015) Socio-Economic Factors Influencing the Spread of Drinking Water Diseases in Rural Africa: Case Study of Bondo Sub-County, Kenya. Journal of Water and Health, 13, 500-509. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2014.039
[4]
Ntouda, J., Fondo, S., Mohamadou, I. and Abbas I. (2012) Access to Drinking Water and Health of Populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of C.R. Biologies, 336, 305-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2013.06.001
[5]
Programme, U. and Raymond, C. (2018) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2018. Nature-Based Solutions for Water. UNESCO, Paris.
[6]
Japitana, M.V., Demetillo, A.T., Burce, M.C. and Taboada, E.B. (2019) Catchment Characterization to Support Water Monitoring and Management Decisions Using Remote Sensing. Sustainable Environment Research, 29, Article No. 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42834-019-0008-5
[7]
Paerl, H.W., Hall, N.S., Peierls, B.L. and Rossignol, K.L. (2014) Evolving Paradigms and Challenges in Estuarine and Coastal Eutrophication Dynamics in a Culturally and Climatically Stressed World. Estuaries and Coasts, 37, 243-258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-014-9773-x
[8]
Gopchak, I., Kaiko, A., Basiuk, T., Pinchuk, O., Gerasimov, I., Yaromenko, O. and Shkirynets, V. (2020) Assessment of Surface Water Pollution in Western Bug River Within the Cross-Border Section of Ukraine. Journal of Water and Land Development, No 46, 97-104. https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2020.134201
[9]
Gratão, P.L., Monteiro, C.C., Tezotto, T., Carvalho, R.F., Alves, L.R., Peters, L.P. and Azevedo, R.A. (2015) Cadmium Stress Antioxidant Responses and Root-to-Shoot Communication in Grafted Tomato Plants. Biometals, 28, 803-816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-015-9867-3
[10]
Aziz, R.A., Rahim, S.A., Sahid, I., Idris, W.M.R. and Bhuiyan, A.R. (2015) Determination of Heavy Metals Uptake in Soil and Paddy Plants. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 15, 161-164.
[11]
Satpathy, D., Reddy, M.V. and Dhal, S.P. (2014) Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination in Paddy Soil, Plants, and Grains (Oryzasativa L.) at the East Coast of India. Biomedical Research International, 2014, Article ID: 545473. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/545473
[12]
Masindi, V. and Muedi, K.L. (2018) Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals. In: Saleh, E.-D.M. and Aglan, R.F., Heavy Metals, IntechOpen, London. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76082
[13]
João, P., Vareda, A.J., Valente, M. and Durães, L. (2016) Heavy Metals in Iberian Soils: Removal by Current Adsorbents/Amendments and Prospective for Aerogels. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 237, 67-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2016.08.009
[14]
Baishya, K. and Sarma, H.P. (2014) Effect of Agrochemicals Application on Accumulation of Heavy Metals on Soil of Different Land Uses with Respect to Its Nutrient Status. Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT), 8, 46-54. https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-08724654
[15]
Akenga, T., Sudoi, V., Machuka, W. and Kerich, E. (2016) Heavy Metal Concentrations in Agricultural Farms in Homa Hills, Homa Bay County, Kenya. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 5, 1664-1669.
[16]
Asongwe, G.A., Yerima, B.P.K. and Tening, A.S. (2014) Vegetable Production and the Livelihood of Farmers in Bamenda Municipality, Cameroon. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 3, 682-700.
[17]
Nitasha, K. and Sanjiv, T. (2015) Influences of Natural and Anthropogenic Factors on Surface and Groundwater Quality in Rural and Urban Areas. Frontiers in Life Science, 8, 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2014.933716
[18]
Roberts, T. (2014) Cadmium and Phosphorous Fertilizers: The Issues and the Science. Procedia Engineering, 83, 52-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.09.012
[19]
Akmel, D.C., Nogbou, A.L.I., Cisse, I., Kakou, K.E., Kone, K.Y., Assidjo, N.E. and Yao, B. (2016) Comparison of Post-Harvest Practices of the Individual Farmers and the Farmers in Cooperative of Côte D’Ivoire and Statistical Identification of Modalities Responsible of Non-Quality. Journal of Food Research, 5, 102-113. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v5n6p102
[20]
OITC (2012) Summary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment of the Kumba-Mamfe Road Development Project in Cameroon. Kumba-Mamfe Road Development Project: P-CM-DB0-011.
[21]
Moussa, M.S. and Mostafa, M.K. (2021) Rapid Assessment Method for Evaluation of the Weighted Contribution of Anthropogenic Pollution: A Case Study of Lake Burullus, Egypt. Water, 13, Article No. 3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13233337
[22]
Alprol, A.E., Heneash, A.M.M., Soliman, A.M., Ashour, M., Alsanie, W.F., Gaber, A. and Mansour, A.T. (2021) Assessment of Water Quality, Eutrophication, and Zooplankton Community in Lake Burullus, Egypt. Diversity, 13, 268-339. https://doi.org/10.3390/d13060268
[23]
Mekonnen, M.M., Lutter, S. and Martinez, A. (2016) Anthropogenic Nitrogen and Phosphorus Emissions and Related Grey Water Footprints Caused by EU-270s Crop Production and Consumption. Water, 8, Article No. 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8010030
[24]
Smith, J. and Deck, L. (2013) Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Egyptian Economy. United Nations Development Programme, Cairo; Stratus Consulting, Boulder.
[25]
Fonge, B.A., Tening Tabot, P.T., Bakia, M.A. and Awah, C.C. (2019) Patterns of Land-Use Change and Current Vegetation Status in Peri-Urban Forest Reserves: The Case of the Barombi-Mbo Forest Reserve, Cameroon. Geology, Ecology and Landscapes, 3, 104-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1508981
[26]
El-Khodre, A.S. and Bedaiwy, M.N.A. (2008) Experimental Characterization of Physio-Chemical, Hydrodynamic and Mechanical Properties of Two Typical Egyptian Soils. Tishreen University Journal, 30, 169-191.
FAO (2005) Fertilizer Use by Crop in Ghana. https://www.fao.org/3/a0013e/a0013e07
[29]
Prakash, D. and Singh, P. (2013) Importance of Quality Farm Yard Manure in Improving Soil Health. Popular Kheti, 1, 113-116.
[30]
US EPA (2016) Water Quality Assessment and TMDL Information. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), Washington DC.
[31]
APHA (2005) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21st Edition, APHA/AWWA/WEF, Washington DC, 1268 p.
[32]
AFNOR (1995) Standard NF ISO 11466 Extraction of Trace Elements Soluble in Aqua Regia. In: Soil Quality, Vol. 1, Editions AFNOR, Paris, 458-464.
[33]
David, N. (1998) Dictionary of Mathematics. Penguin Books, London.
[34]
Garcia-Avila, F., Jimenez-Ordonez, M., Torres-Sanchez, J., Iglesias-Abad, S., Torres, R.C. and Zhindon-Arevalo, C. (2022) Evaluation of the Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on Surface Water Quality Using a Water Quality Index and Environmental Assessment. Journal of Water and Land Development, 53, 58-67. https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2022.140780
[35]
Briciu, A.E., Grau, A. and Opre, D.I. (2020) Water Quality Index of Suceava River in Suceava City Metropolitan Area. Water, 12, Article No. 2111. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12082111
[36]
Hasan, M.M., Ahmed, M.S., Adnan, R. and Shafiquzzaman, M. (2020) Water Quality Indices to Assess the Spatiotemporal Variations of Dhaleshwari River in Central Bangladesh. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 8, Article ID: 100068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2020.100068
[37]
Naubi, I., Zardari, N.H., Shirazi, S., Ibrahim, F. and Baloo, L. (2016) Effectiveness of Water Quality Index for Monitoring Malaysian River Water Quality. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 25, 231-239. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/60109
[38]
Nguyen, B.T., Nguyen, V.N., Truong, H.T.T., Do, D.D., Nguyen, T.X., Nguyen, D.T.P., Nguyen, M.H., Dong, H.P., Le, A.H. and Bach, Q.V. (2020) Assessment and Source Quantification of Heavy Metal(Loid)S in Surface Water Using Multivariate Analyses from the Saigon River, Vietnam. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 19383-19397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08363-6
[39]
Tening, A.S., Chuyong, G.B., Asongwe, G.A., Fonge, B.A., Lifongo, L.L., Mvondo-Ze, A.D., Che, V.B. and Suh, C.E. (2013) Contribution of Some Water Bodies and the Role of Soils in the Physicochemical Enrichment of the Douala-Edea Mangrove Ecosystem. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 7, 336-349.
