The integration of blockchain technology with artificial intelligence (AI) offers transformative potential for enhancing psychological research, diagnostics, and interventions. This study investigates the synergy between blockchain and AI to address critical issues of data security, privacy, and integrity in psychological assessments. A systematic literature review was conducted, utilizing databases such as PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO, to synthesize relevant studies from 2010 to 2023. Additionally, a simulated psychological assessment environment was created to validate the practical application of these technologies. The findings reveal that blockchain significantly enhances the security and privacy of AI-generated psychological data, fostering more reliable, transparent, and patient-centred practices. However, the study critically examines potential risks, including blockchain centralization and data quality issues, and underscores the importance of considering stakeholder values in IT system design. This research fills gaps in the existing literature by providing novel insights into the intersection of blockchain and AI, proposing future research directions, and emphasizing the need for regulatory frameworks and technological advancements to fully realize their potential in psychology. The findings con-tribute significantly to advancing ethical standards, data security, and patient privacy in psychological care, offering actionable recommendations for researchers and practitioners.
References
[1]
Pablo, R.J., Roberto, D., Victor, S., Isabel, G., Paul, C. and Elizabeth, O. (2021) Big Data in the Healthcare System: A Synergy with Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain Technology. Journal of Integrative Bioinformatics, 19, Article ID: 20200035. https://doi.org/10.1515/jib-2020-0035
[2]
Li, Y.X. (2017) Deep Reinforcement Learning: An Overview. arXiv: 1701.07274.
[3]
Zhang, S., Bamakan, S.M.H., Qu, Q. and Li, S. (2019) Learning for Personalized Medicine: A Comprehen-sive Review from a Deep Learning Perspective. IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering, 12, 194-208. https://doi.org/10.1109/rbme.2018.2864254
[4]
Yu, C., Liu, J., Nemati, S. and Yin, G. (2021) Reinforcement Learning in Healthcare: A Survey. ACM Computing Surveys, 55, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1145/3477600
[5]
Farouk, A., Alahmadi, A., Ghose, S. and Mashatan, A. (2020) Blockchain Platform for Industrial Healthcare: Vision and Future Opportunities. Computer Communications, 154, 223-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comcom.2020.02.058
[6]
Rabah, K. (2018) Con-vergence of AI, IoT, Big Data and Blockchain: A Review. The Lake Institute Journal, 1, 1-18.
[7]
Firoozjaei, M.D., Lu, R. and Ghorbani, A.A. (2020) An Evaluation Framework for Privacy-Preserving Solutions Applicable for Blockchain-Based Inter-net-of-Things Platforms. Security and Privacy, 3, e131. https://doi.org/10.1002/spy2.131
[8]
Di Francesco Maesa, D. and Mori, P. (2020) Blockchain 3.0 Applications Survey. Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, 138, 99-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpdc.2019.12.019
[9]
Zarrin, J., Wen Phang, H., Babu Saheer, L. and Zarrin, B. (2021) Block-chain for Decentralization of Internet: Prospects, Trends, and Challenges. Cluster Computing, 24, 2841-2866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-021-03301-8
[10]
Bernal Bernabe, J., Canovas, J.L., Hernandez-Ramos, J.L., Torres Moreno, R. and Skarmeta, A. (2019) Privacy-preserving Solutions for Blockchain: Review and Challenges. IEEE Access, 7, 164908-164940. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2950872
[11]
Bhutta, M.N.M., Khwaja, A.A., Nadeem, A., Ahmad, H.F., Khan, M.K., Hanif, M.A., et al. (2021) A Survey on Blockchain Technology: Evolution, Architecture and Security. IEEE Access, 9, 61048-61073. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3072849
[12]
Zheng, Z., Xie, S., Dai, H.N., Chen, X. and Wang, H. (2018) Blockchain Challenges and Opportunities: A Survey. International Journal of Web and Grid Services, 14, 352-375. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijwgs.2018.095647
[13]
Firouzi, F., Farahani, B., Daneshmand, M., Grise, K., Song, J., Saracco, R., et al. (2021) Harnessing the Power of Smart and Connected Health to Tackle COVID-19: IoT, AI, Robotics, and Blockchain for a Better World. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 8, 12826-12846. https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2021.3073904
[14]
Hassan, M.U., Rehmani, M.H. and Chen, J. (2019) Privacy Preservation in Blockchain Based IoT Systems: Integration Issues, Prospects, Challenges, and Future Research Directions. Future Genera-tion Computer Systems, 97, 512-529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2019.02.060
[15]
Thieme, A., Belgrave, D. and Doherty, G. (2020) Machine Learning in Mental Health: A Systematic Review of the HCI Literature to Support the Develop-ment of Effective and Implementable ML Systems. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 27, 1-53. https://doi.org/10.1145/3398069
[16]
Tyagi, A.K., Aswathy, S.U. and Abraham, A. (2020) Integrating Blockchain Tech-nology and Artificial Intelligence: Synergies Perspectives Challenges and Research Directions. Journal of Information Assur-ance and Security, 15, 1554.
[17]
Xuan, T.R. and Ness, S. (2023) Integration of Blockchain and AI: Exploring Application in the Digital Business. Journal of Engineering Research and Reports, 25, 20-39. https://doi.org/10.9734/jerr/2023/v25i8955
[18]
Swets, J.A., Dawes, R.M. and Monahan, J. (2000) Psychological Science Can Improve Diagnostic Decisions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.001
[19]
Wankhade, M., Rao, A.C.S. and Kulkarni, C. (2022) A Survey on Sentiment Analysis Methods, Applications, and Challenges. Artificial Intelligence Review, 55, 5731-5780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-022-10144-1
[20]
Mechanic, D. and Meyer, S. (2000) Concepts of Trust among Patients with Serious Illness. Social Science & Medicine, 51, 657-668. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00014-9
[21]
Ntoutsi, E., Fafalios, P., Gadiraju, U., Iosifidis, V., Nejdl, W., Vidal, M., et al. (2020) Bias in Data-Driven Artificial Intelligence Systems—An Introductory Survey. WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 10, e1356. https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1356
[22]
Upadhyay, A., Mukhuty, S., Kumar, V. and Kazancoglu, Y. (2021) Blockchain Technology and the Circular Economy: Implications for Sustainability and Social Respon-sibility. Journal of Cleaner Production, 293, Article ID: 126130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126130
[23]
Hussain, A.A. and Al-Turjman, F. (2021) Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain: A Review. Transactions on Emerging Telecommunications Technologies, 32, e4268. https://doi.org/10.1002/ett.4268
[24]
Ren, Y., Leng, Y., Zhu, F., Wang, J. and Kim, H. (2019) Data Storage Mechanism Based on Blockchain with Privacy Protection in Wireless Body Area Network. Sensors, 19, Article 2395. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102395
[25]
Taherdoost, H. (2022) Blockchain Technology and Artificial Intelligence To-gether: A Critical Review on Applications. Applied Sciences, 12, Article 12948. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412948
[26]
Lemieux, V.L. (2022) Searching for Trust: Blockchain Technology in an Age of Disinformation. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108877350
[27]
Tang, Y., Xiong, J., Becer-ril-Arreola, R. and Iyer, L. (2019) Ethics of Blockchain: A Framework of Technology, Applications, Impacts, and Research Directions. Information Technology & People, 33, 602-632. https://doi.org/10.1108/itp-10-2018-0491
[28]
Highhouse, S. (2002) Assessing the Candidate as a Whole: A Historical and Critical Analysis of Individual Psychological Assessment for Personnel Decision Making. Personnel Psychology, 55, 363-396. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2002.tb00114.x
[29]
Ahangari, S., Jeihani, M., Ardeshiri, A., Rahman, M.M. and Dehzangi, A. (2021) Enhancing the Performance of a Model to Predict Driving Distraction with the Random Forest Classifi-er. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2675, 612-622. https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211018695
[30]
Olaronke, I. and Ojerinde, O. (2016) Big Data in Healthcare: Pro-spects, Challenges and Resolutions. 2016 Future Technologies Conference (FTC), San Francisco, 6-7 December 2016, 1152-1157. IEEE,. https://doi.org/10.1109/FTC.2016.7821747
[31]
Oluchi Anyanwu, G., Nwakanma, C.I., Lee, J. and Kim, D. (2023) Optimization of RBF-SVM Kernel Using Grid Search Algorithm for DDoS Attack Detection in SDN-Based VANET. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 10, 8477-8490. https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2022.3199712
[32]
Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Pratap Singh, R. and Suman, R. (2022) Medical 4.0 Technologies for Healthcare: Features, Capabilities, and Ap-plications. Internet of Things and Cyber-Physical Systems, 2, 12-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iotcps.2022.04.001
[33]
Díaz-Rodríguez, N., Del Ser, J., Coeckelbergh, M., López de Prado, M., Herrera-Viedma, E. and Herrera, F. (2023) Connecting the Dots in Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence: From AI Principles, Ethics, and Key Requirements to Responsible AI Systems and Regulation. Information Fusion, 99, Article ID: 101896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2023.101896
[34]
Rao, U.P., Shukla, P.K., Trivedi, C., Gupta, S. and Shibeshi, Z.S. (2021) Blockchain for Information Security and Privacy. CRC Press.
[35]
Kshetri, N. (2017) Blockchain's Roles in Strengthening Cybersecurity and Protecting Privacy. Telecommunications Policy, 41, 1027-1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2017.09.003
[36]
Axon, L., Goldsmith, M. and Creese, S. (2018) Privacy Requirements in Cybersecurity Applications of Blockchain. Advances in Computers, 111, 229-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adcom.2018.03.004
[37]
Jin, H., Luo, Y., Li, P. and Mathew, J. (2019) A Review of Secure and Privacy-Preserving Medical Data Sharing. IEEE Access, 7, 61656-61669. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2916503
[38]
Makhdoom, I., Zhou, I., Abolhasan, M., Lipman, J. and Ni, W. (2020) Privysharing: A Blockchain-Based Framework for Privacy-Preserving and Secure Data Sharing in Smart Cities. Computers & Security, 88, Article ID: 101653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2019.101653
[39]
Salah, K., Rehman, M.H.U., Ni-zamuddin, N. and Al-Fuqaha, A. (2019) Blockchain for AI: Review and Open Research Challenges. IEEE Access, 7, 10127-10149. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2018.2890507
[40]
Aldoseri, A., Al-Khalifa, K.N. and Hamouda, A.M. (2023) Re-thinking Data Strategy and Integration for Artificial Intelligence: Concepts, Opportunities, and Challenges. Ap-plied Sciences, 13, Article 7082. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127082
[41]
Johnsen, M. (2020) Blockchain in Digital Marketing: A New Paradigm of Trust. Maria Johnsen.
[42]
Tiwari, A., Chugh, A. and Sharma, A. (2023) Uses of Artificial Intelligence with Human-Computer Interaction in Psychology. In: Khan, S.B., et al., Eds., Innovations in Artificial Intelligence and Human-Computer Interaction in the Digital Era, Elsevier, 173-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-99891-8.00003-6
[43]
Jabarulla, M.Y. and Lee, H. (2021) A Blockchain and Artifi-cial Intelligence-Based, Patient-Centric Healthcare System for Combating the COVID-19 Pandemic: Opportunities and Ap-plications. Healthcare, 9, Article 1019. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9081019
[44]
Zaabar, B., Cheikhrouhou, O., Jamil, F., Ammi, M. and Abid, M. (2021) Healthblock: A Secure Blockchain-Based Healthcare Data Management System. Computer Networks, 200, Article ID: 108500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2021.108500
[45]
Johnson, K.B., Wei, W., Weeraratne, D., Frisse, M.E., Misulis, K., Rhee, K., et al. (2020) Precision Medicine, AI, and the Future of Personalized Health Care. Clinical and Translational Science, 14, 86-93. https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12884
[46]
Tagde, P., Tagde, S., Bhattacharya, T., Tagde, P., Chopra, H., Akter, R., et al. (2021) Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence Technology in E-Health. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 52810-52831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16223-0
[47]
McCourt, B., Harrington, R.A., Fox, K., Hamilton, C.D., Booher, K., Hammond, W.E., et al. (2007) Data Standards: At the Intersection of Sites, Clinical Research Networks, and Standards De-velopment Initiatives. Drug Information Journal, 41, 393-404. https://doi.org/10.1177/009286150704100313
[48]
Zhang, D., Wang, S., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Q. and Zhang, Y. (2022) A Secure and Privacy-Preserving Medical Data Sharing via Consortium Blockchain. Security and Communication Networks, 2022, Article ID: 2759787. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2759787
[49]
Rajpurkar, P., Chen, E., Banerjee, O. and Topol, E.J. (2022) AI in Health and Medicine. Nature Medicine, 28, 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01614-0
[50]
American College of Legal Medicine and American Board of Legal Medicine (2024) Legal Medicine: Health Care Law and Medical Ethics-INK: Health Care Law and Medical Ethics. Else-vier.
[51]
Brandl, B., Dyer, C.B., Heisler, C.J., Otto, J.M., Stiegel, L.A. and Thomas, R.W. (2006) Elder Abuse Detection and Intervention: A Collaborative Approach. Springer.
[52]
Zhu, P., Hu, J., Zhang, Y. and Li, X. (2020) A Blockchain Based Solu-tion for Medication Anti-Counterfeiting and Traceability. IEEE Access, 8, 184256-184272. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3029196
[53]
Elshenraki, H.N. (2023) Forecasting Cyber Crimes in the Age of the Metaverse. IGI Global.
[54]
Snavely, N., Simon, I., Goesele, M., Szeliski, R. and Seitz, S.M. (2010) Scene Reconstruction and Visualization from Community Photo Collections. Proceedings of the IEEE, 98, 1370-1390. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2010.2049330
[55]
DeBrabander, F. (2020) Life after Privacy: Reclaiming Democracy in a Surveillance Society. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108868280
[56]
Khan, F. (2023) Reg-ulating the Revolution: A Legal Roadmap to Optimizing AI in Healthcare. Minnesota Journal of Law, Science & Technology, 25, 49.
[57]
Fahim, S., Katibur Rahman, S. and Mahmood, S. (2023) Blockchain: A Comparative Study of Consensus Algo-rithms Pow, Pos, Poa, Pov. International Journal of Mathematical Sciences and Computing, 9, 46-57. https://doi.org/10.5815/ijmsc.2023.03.04
[58]
Chen, Y., Lu, Y., Bulysheva, L. and Kataev, M.Y. (2022) Applications of Blockchain in Industry 4.0: A Review. Information Systems Frontiers. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-022-10248-7
[59]
Tan, T.M. and Saraniemi, S. (2022) Trust in Blockchain-Enabled Ex-changes: Future Directions in Blockchain Marketing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 51, 914-939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-022-00889-0
[60]
Scheibner, J., Raisaro, J.L., Troncoso-Pastoriza, J.R., Ienca, M., Fellay, J., Vayena, E., et al. (2021) Revolutionizing Medical Data Sharing Using Advanced Privacy-Enhancing Technologies: Tech-nical, Legal, and Ethical Synthesis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23, e25120. https://doi.org/10.2196/25120
[61]
Ducrée, J., Etzrodt, M., Bartling, S., Walshe, R., Harrington, T., Wittek, N., et al. (2021) Unchaining Collective Intelligence for Science, Research, and Technology Development by Blockchain-Boosted Community Participation. Frontiers in Blockchain, 4, Article 631648. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbloc.2021.631648
[62]
Gabriel, O.T. (2023) Data Privacy and Ethical Issues in Collecting Health Care Data Using Artificial Intelligence among Health Workers. Master’s Thesis, Center for Bio-ethics and Research.
[63]
Baz, M., Khatri, S., Baz, A., Alhakami, H., Agrawal, A. and Ahmad Khan, R. (2022) Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence Applica-tions to Defeat COVID-19 Pandemic. Computer Systems Science and Engineering, 40, 691-702. https://doi.org/10.32604/csse.2022.019079
[64]
Williamson, S.M. and Prybutok, V. (2024) Balancing Privacy and Pro-gress: A Review of Privacy Challenges, Systemic Oversight, and Patient Perceptions in AI-Driven Healthcare. Applied Sci-ences, 14, Article 675. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020675
[65]
Gill, S.S., Tuli, S., Xu, M., Singh, I., Singh, K.V., Lind-say, D., et al. (2019) Transformative Effects of IoT, Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence on Cloud Computing: Evolution, Vision, Trends and Open Challenges. Internet of Things, 8, Article ID: 100118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2019.100118
[66]
Nawari, N.O. and Ravindran, S. (2019) Blockchain and the Built Envi-ronment: Potentials and Limitations. Journal of Building Engineering, 25, Article ID: 100832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100832
[67]
Maki, N. (2020) Between Peace and Technology—A Case Study on Opportunities and Responsible Design of Artificial Intelligence in Peace Technology.
