Overview of principles and implementations to deal with spatial issues in monitoring environmental effects of genetically modified organisms

In the European Union [EU], the release of genetically modified organisms [GMO] into the environment is regulated by EU Directive 2001/18/EC [1]. Accordingly, post-market environmental monitoring of genetically modified plants [GMP EM] has to be implemented to detect and prevent adverse effects on human health and the environment. However, no general strategies for GMP EM have been established so far. In Germany, one EM strategy discussed is the Guideline 4330 Part 1 published by the Association of German Engineers [VDI] [2]. It applies to the monitoring of ecological effects of GMP, but does not address possible effects of GMP on human health. Contrary to the directive of the European Community [1] and the study of Sanvido et al. [3], the guideline of the VDI [2] does not differentiate between case-specific monitoring [CSM] and general surveillance [GS]. CSM should focus on anticipated effects of a specific GMP based on pre-market risk assessment, whereas GS is designed to detect unanticipated adverse effects which were not covered by risk assessment comprising, for instance, cumulative and long-term effects.The VDI [2] covers ecological effects of GMP encompassing direct, indirect, immediate and delayed as well as cumulative long-term effects. Environmental effects of GMP can occur on several levels of ecological organization in terms of structures and underlying functions, and correlated levels of time and space which have to be covered by GMP EM [4]. The VDI [2] provides planning and implementation criteria for GMP EM and forms the framework for technical instructions with respect to the levels mentioned above, items to be protected, protection targets and checkpoints. GMP EM should allow evaluating the condition of the items to be protected and to track the accomplishment of protection targets. The required parameters have to be collected using validated and standardised methods.Since protection targets and checkpoints may not only be influenced by GMP, it is n