The Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) is an established threat- and efficacy-based behavioral framework for understanding health behaviors in the face of uncertain risk. A growing body of research has applied this model to understand these behaviors among the public health workforce. In this manuscript, we aim to explore the application of this framework to the public health workforce, with a novel focus on their confidence in vaccines and perceptions of vaccine injury compensation mechanisms. We characterize specific connections between EPPM’s threat and efficacy dimensions and relevant vaccine policy frameworks and highlight how these connections can usefully inform training interventions for public health workers to enhance their confidence in these vaccine policy measures.
Hollmeyer, H.G.; Hayden, F.; Poland, G.; Buchholz, U. Influenza vaccination of healthcare workers in hospitals—A review of studies on attitudes and predictors. Vaccine 2009, 27, 3935–3944, doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.056.
[6]
Rehmani, R.; Memon, J.I. Knowledge, Attitudes and beliefs regarding influenza vaccination among healthcare workers in a saudi hospital. Vaccine 2010, 28, 4283–4287.
[7]
Vírseda, S.; Restrepo, M.A.; Arranz, E.; Magán-Tapia, P.; Fernández-Ruiz, M.; de la Cámara, A.G.; Aguado, J.M.; López-Medrano, F. Seasonal and pandemic A (H1N1) 2009 influenza vaccination coverage and attitudes among health-care workers in a Spanish university hospital. Vaccine 2010, 28, 4751–4757, doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.04.101.
[8]
Esteves-Jaramillo, A.; Omer, S.B.; Gonzalez-Diaz, E.; Salmon, D.A.; Hixson, B.; Navarro, F.; Kawa-Karasik, S.; Frew, P.; Morfin-Otero, R.; Rodriguez-Noriega, E.; et al. Acceptance of a vaccine against novel influenza a (H1N1) virus among healthcare workers in two major cities in Mexico. Arch. Med. Res. 2009, 40, 705–711, doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2010.01.004.
[9]
Irvin, C.B.; Cindrich, L.; Patterson, W.; Southall, A. Survey of hospital healthcare personnel response during a potential avian influenza pandemic: Will they come to work? Prehosp. Disaster Med. 2008, 23, 328–335.
[10]
Garrett, A.L.; Park, Y.S.; Redlener, I. Mitigating absenteeism in hospital workers during a pandemic. Disaster Med. Public Health Prep. 2009, 3, S141–S147, doi:10.1097/DMP.0b013e3181c12959.
[11]
Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, USA. The Future of the Public’s Health in the 21st Century; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2002.
[12]
Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, USA. Research Priorities in Emergency Preparedness and Response: A Letter Report; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2008; pp. 1–42.
[13]
Seib, K.; Barnett, D.J.; Weiss, P.S.; Omer, S.B. Vaccine-related standard of care and willingness to respond to public health emergencies: A cross-sectional survey of california vaccine providers. Vaccine 2012, 31, 196–201, doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.10.066.
[14]
Barnett, D.J.; Thompson, C.B.; Errett, N.A.; Semon, N.L.; Anderson, M.K.; Ferrell, J.L.; Freiheit, J.M.; Hudson, R.; Koch, M.M.; McKee, M.; et al. Determinants of emergency response willingness in the local public health workforce by jurisdictional and scenario patterns: A cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 2012, 12, 164, doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-164.
[15]
Barnett, D.J.; Balicer, R.D.; Thompson, C.B.; Storey, J.D.; Omer, S.B.; Semon, N.L.; Bayer, S.; Cheek, L.V.; Gately, K.W.; Lanza, K.M.; et al. Assessment of local public health workers’ willingness to respond to pandemic influenza through application of the extended parallel process model. PLoS One 2009, 4, e6365, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006365.
[16]
Witte, K. Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Commun. Monogr. 1992, 59, 329–349, doi:10.1080/03637759209376276.
[17]
Witte, K. Fear control and danger control: A Test of the extended parallel process model. Commun. Monogr. 1994, 61, 113–134, doi:10.1080/03637759409376328.
[18]
Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol. Rev. 1977, 184, 191–215, doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.
[19]
Askelson, N.M.; Chi, D.L.; Momany, E.; Kuthy, R.; Ortiz, C.; Hanson, J.H.; Damiano, P. Encouraging early preventive dental visits for preschool-aged children enrolled in medicaid: Using the extended parallel process model to conduct formative research. J. Public Health Dent. 2012, doi:10.1111/j.1752-7325.2012.00369.x.
[20]
Campo, S.; Askelson, N.M.; Spies, E.L.; Losch, M. Ambivalence, communication and past use: understanding what influences women’s intentions to use contraceptives. Psychol.Health Med. 2012, 17, 356–365, doi:10.1080/13548506.2011.608432.
[21]
Pengchit, W.; Walters, S.T.; Simmons, R.G.; Kohlmann, W.; Burt, R.W.; Schwartz, M.D.; Kinney, A.Y. Motivation-based intervention to promote colonoscopy screening: an integration of a fear management model and motivational interviewing. J. Health Psychol. 2011, 16, 1187–1197, doi:10.1177/1359105311402408.
[22]
Kotowski, M.R.; Smith, S.W.; Johnstone, P.M.; Pritt, E. Using the extended parallel process model to create and evaluate the effectiveness of brochures to reduce the risk for noise-induced hearing loss in college students. Noise Health 2011, 13, 261–271, doi:10.4103/1463-1741.82958.
[23]
Murray-Johnson, L.; Witte, K.; Patel, D.; Orrego, V.; Zuckerman, C.; Maxfield, A.M.; Thimons, E.D. Using the extended parallel process model to prevent noise-induced hearing loss among coal miners in Appalachia. Health Educ. Behav. 2004, 31, 741–755, doi:10.1177/1090198104263396.
[24]
Wong, N.C.; Cappella, J.N. Antismoking threat and efficacy appeals: Effects on smoking cessation intentions for smokers with low and high readiness to quit. J. Appl. Commun. Res. 2009, 37, 1–20, doi:10.1080/00909880802593928.
[25]
Siu, W. Extended parallel process model and H5N1 influenza virus. Psychol. Rep. 2008, 102, 539–550, doi:10.2466/pr0.102.2.539-550.
[26]
Cameron, K.A.; Rintamaki, L.S.; Kamanda-Kosseh, M.; Noskin, G.A.; Baker, D.W.; Makoul, G. Using theoretical constructs to identify key issues for targeted message design: African American Seniors’ perceptions about influenza and influenza vaccination. Health Commun. 2009, 24, 316–326, doi:10.1080/10410230902889258.
[27]
Prati, F.; Pietrantoni, L.; Zani, B. Influenza vaccination: the persuasiveness of messages among people aged 65 years and older. Health Commun. 2012, 27, 413–420, doi:10.1080/10410236.2011.606523.
[28]
Health Resources and Services Administration. What You Need to Know about the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Rockville, MD, USA, 2011.
[29]
Rutkow, L.; Maggy, B.; Zablotsky, J.; Oliver, T.R. Balancing consumer and industry interests in public health: The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program and its influence during the last two decades. Penn. State Law Rev. 2007, 111, 681–738.
[30]
Health Resources and Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Vaccine Injury Table. Available online: http://www.hrsa.gov/vaccinecompensation/vaccinetable.html/ (accessed on 10 December 2012).
[31]
United States Code, Title 42, Section 300aa-15(a). 2012.
[32]
Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness (PREP), Act in 2006. Public Law Number 109-148. 2005.
[33]
Health Resources and Services Administration, Countermeasures Injury Compensation Program. Available online: http://www.hrsa.gov/gethealthcare/conditions/countermeasurescomp/index.html/ (accessed on 10 December 2012).
[34]
United States Code, Title 42, section 247d-6d(b). 2012.
[35]
Pandemic Influenza Vaccines—Amendment. Federal Register. 75, 10,268. 5, March, 2010.
[36]
Crawford, K.S.; Axelrad, J. Legislative modifications to tort liability: the unintended consequence of public health and bioterrorism threats. Creighton Law Rev. 2012, 45, 337–360.
[37]
Jacobson v. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11. 1905.
[38]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccination coverage among children in Kindergarten-United States, 2011-21 School Year. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep. 2012, 61, 647–652.
[39]
Stewart, A.M.; Rosenbaum, S. Vaccinating the health-care workforce: State law vs. institutional requirements. Public Health Rep. 2010, 125, 615–618.
[40]
Parmet, W.E. Pandemic vaccines—The legal landscape. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 362, 1949–1952, doi:10.1056/NEJMp1000938.
[41]
Bader, P.; Boisclair, D.; Ferrence, R. Effects of tobacco taxation and pricing on smoking behavior in high risk populations: A knowledge synthesis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2011, 8, 4118–4139, doi:10.3390/ijerph8114118.
[42]
Middlestadt, S.E.; Macy, J.T.; Seo, D.C.; Jay, S.J.; Kolbe, L.J. The combined effect of behavioral intention and exposure to a smoke-free air law on taking measures to quit smoking. Health Promot. Pract. 2012, 13, 553–558.
[43]
O’Connor, R.J.; Bansal-Travers, M.; Carter, L.P.; Cummings, K.M. What would menthol smokers do if menthol cigarettes were banned? Behavioral intentions and simulated demand. Addiction 2012, 107, 1330–1338, doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03822.x.
[44]
Strine, T.W.; Beck, L.; Bolen, J.; Okoro, C.; Li, C. Potential moderating role of seat belt law on the relationship between seat belt use and adverse health behavior. Am. J. Health Behav. 2012, 36, 44–55.
[45]
Chaudhary, N.K.; Tison, J.; Casanova, T. The Effects of maine’s change to primary seat belt law on seat belt use and public perception and awareness. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2010, 11, 165–172, doi:10.1080/15389580903524791.
[46]
Carpenter, C.S.; Stehr, M. The effects of mandatory seatbelt laws on seatbelt use, motor vehicle fatalities, and crash-related injuries among youth. J. Health Econ. 2008, 27, 642–662, doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2007.09.010.
[47]
Traynor, T.L. The impact of state level behavioral regulations on traffic fatality rates. J. Safety Res. 2009, 40, 421–426.
[48]
Fell, J.C.; Fisher, D.A.; Voas, R.B.; Blackman, K.; Tippetts, A.S. The impact of underage driving laws on alcohol-related fatal crashes of young drivers. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 2009, 33, 1208–1219.
[49]
Balicer, R.D.; Barnett, D.J.; Thompson, C.B.; Hsu, E.B.; Catlett, C.L.; Watson, C.M.; Semon, N.L.; Gwon, H.S.; Links, J.M. Characterizing hospital workers’ willingness to report to duty in an influenza pandemic through threat- and efficacy-based assessment. BMC Public Health 2010, 10, 436, doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-436.
[50]
Errett, N.A.; Barnett, D.J.; Thompson, C.B.; Tosatto, R.; Austin, B.; Schaffzin, S.; Ansari, A.; Semon, N.L.; Balicer, R.D.; Links, J.M. Assessment of medical reserve corps volunteers emergency response willingness using a threat- and efficacy-based model. Biosecur. Bioterror. 2013, 11, 29–40, doi:10.1089/bsp.2012.0047.
[51]
Barnett, D.J.; Levine, R.; Thompson, C.B.; Wijetunge, G.U.; Oliver, A.L.; Bentley, M.A.; Neubert, P.D.; Pirrallo, R.G.; Links, J.M.; Balicer, R.D.; et al. Emergency medical services workers willingness to respond to pandemic influenza using a threat- and efficacy-based assessment framework. PLoS One 2010, 5, e9856, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009856.
