T-2 toxin induced Salmonella Typhimurium intoxication results in decreased Salmonella numbers in the cecum contents of pigs, despite marked effects on Salmonella-host cell interactions

T-2 toxin is a type A trichothecene, produced by various Fusarium spp. such as Fusarium acuminatum, F. equiseti, F. poae and F. sporotrichioides [1]. In moderate climate regions of North America, Asia and Europe, these moulds are common contaminants of cereals such as wheat, barley, oats, maize and other crops for human and animal consumption [2]. Since mycotoxins are very stable under normal food processing conditions, T-2 toxin can end up in the food and feed. With T-2 toxin being the most acute toxic trichothecene [3], this mycotoxin may pose a threat to human and animal health around the world. Pigs appear to be one of the most sensitive species to Fusarium mycotoxins [4]. Moderate to high levels of T-2 toxin cause a variety of toxic effects including immunosuppression, feed refusal, vomiting, weight loss, reduced growth and skin lesions [5]. Only little information is available on in vivo effects from humans with known exposure to T-2 toxin. Wang et al. reported an outbreak of human toxicosis in China caused by moldy rice contaminated with T-2 toxin at concentrations ranging from 180 to 420 μg T-2 toxin per kg, and the main symptoms were nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, thoracic stuffiness and diarrhea [6]. Furthermore, it is suggested that alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), which occurred in the USSR in the period 1941-1947, is related to the presence of T-2 toxin producing Fusarium spp. in over-wintered grain. Clinical symptoms include inflammation of gastric and intestinal mucosa, leukopenia, hemorrhagic diathesis, granulopenia, bone marrow aplasia and sepsis [7]. Although a tolerable daily intake (TDI) value for the sum of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin of 100 ng/kg has been set by the European Union [8], control of exposure is limited since no maximum guidance limits for T-2 toxin in food and feedstuff are yet established by the European Union. However, contamination of cereals with T-2 toxin is an emerging issue and concentrations up to 1810 μg T-2 toxin per kg w