This paper examines the impacts of municipal adjustment strategies on territorial governance in Africa, with specific reference to Senegal, as the result of the action of the World Bank. The paper identifies the process through which the World Bank is reconfiguring the system of actors and changing the local institutional environment to embody its philosophy of governance modernization. The paper shows how the local actor is brought to contribute to the new focus on governance and the reshaping of local institutions, which together comprise a type of urban development that aligns with the tenets of globalization. 1. Introduction This paper focuses on the governance model crafted by the World Bank (hereafter referred to as “the Bank”) for Senegal which involved the implementation of a variety of urban development projects. The activities of this model have an impact on the existing organizational dynamics within a given territorial context and are designed and deployed in keeping with the development paradigm adhered to by the Bank [1]. This deployment creates favourable conditions for a western type of institution building, namely, in that it makes local actors a driving force of the aforementioned building. ？By replicating external policies and implementing development projects conceived by the Bank, these local actors participate in the creation of spaces where a new institutional geography is instituted and mainstreamed to conform to the western neoliberal ideology. More specifically, the new local institutionality ([2], page 215) took shape as a result of the implementation of the Bank’s municipal adjustment processes and the territorialized version of its structural adjustment programs. As has been well documented, the latter are more likely to disrupt historically anchored politicoadministrative structures than to achieve their purported purpose of improving the living conditions of citizens. In this paper, we demonstrate the dramatic negative impacts of this governance model on the basis of eight interrelated urban projects launched from 1972 on. A close reading of documented facts issued by the Bank and write-ups associated with these projects make it possible to map out the evolution of resulting transformations. Section 2 of the paper outlines the research problem and provides a synthesis of the criticisms formulated in the scientific literature about the Bank’s development projects. Section 3 highlights conceptual references that focus on an analysis of the process of institution building embodying the application of the Bank’s projects.
References
[1]
M. F. Tuozzo, “World Bank influence and institutional reform in Argentina,” Development and Change, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 467–485, 2009.
[2]
S. R. Ganesh, “Institution building for social and organizational change,” Organization Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 209–227, 1980.
[3]
Y. Bangura, “Economic restructuring, coping strategies and social change: implications for institutional development in Africa,” Development & Change, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 785–827, 1994.
[4]
M. Ndongo, L’intervention de la banque mondiale et la reconfiguration institutionnelle au niveau local: analyse de huit projets de développement urbain au Sénégal (1972–2006) [Ph.D. dissertation], Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada, 2010.
[5]
E. Swyngedouw, “Neither global nor local: glocalization and the politics of scale,” in Spaces of Globalization, Reasserting the Power of the Local, K. R. Cox, Ed., pp. 137–200, Guilford Press, New York, NY, USA, 1997.
[6]
S. Madhavaram and R. E. McDonald, “Knowledge-based sales management strategy and the grafting metaphor: implications for theory and practice,” Industrial Marketing Management, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 1078–1087, 2010.
[7]
C. Fuller and M. Geddes, “Urban governance under neoliberalism: new labour and the restructuring of state-space,” Antipode, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 252–282, 2008.
[8]
N. Brenner and N. Theodore, “Preface: from the “new localism” to the spaces of neoliberalism,” Antipode, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 341–347, 2002.
[9]
S. Narsiah, “The neoliberalisation of the local state in Durban, South Africa,” Antipode, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 374–403, 2010.
[10]
J. Peck and A. Tickell, “Neoliberalizing space,” Antipode, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 380–404, 2002.
[11]
R. Weber, “Extracting value from the city: neoliberalism and urban redevelopment,” Antipode, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 519–540, 2002.
[12]
J. Essex, “The neoliberalization of development,” Antipode, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 229–251, 2008.
[13]
B. Jessop, “Liberalism, neoliberalism, and urban governance: a state-theoretical perspective,” Antipode, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 451–472, 2002.
[14]
D. Kapur, J. P. Lewis, and R. Webb, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, vol. 2 of Perspectives, Brooking Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
[15]
S. Kühl, “Capacity development as the model for development aid organizations,” Development and Change, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 551–577, 2009.
[16]
C. Lancaster, “The World Bank in Africa since 1980: the politics of structural adjustment lending,” in The World Bank: Its First Half Century, D. Kapur, J. P. Lewis, and R. Webb, Eds., vol. 2 of Perspectives, pp. 161–194, Brooking Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
[17]
R. Morin and A. -M. Séguin, “La Banque mondiale et les politiques urbaines,” Revue Canadienne D’étuDes du Développement, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 23–45, 1997.
[18]
E. Ramsamy, The World Bank and Urban Development, Routledge, London, UK, 2006.
[19]
C. Zanetta, “The evolution of the World Bank's urban lending in Latin America,” Habitat International, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 513–533, 2001.
[20]
R. Ayres, The World Bank and World Poverty, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 1983.
[21]
N. Kumar, Développement Mené Par La Communauté: Le？ons Tirées Du Sahel, Une étude Analytique, World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 2003.
[22]
N. Kumar, Efficacité De L'Appui De La Banque Mondiale Au Développement De Proximité Et Au Développement Mené Par La Communauté: évaLuation De L'OED, World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
[23]
M. Crozier and E. Friedberg, L’Acteur et le Système, Seuil, Paris, France, 1981.
[24]
Y. Meny and J.-C. Thoenig, Politiques Publiques, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, France, 1989.
[25]
A. Osmont, La Banque Mondiale et les Villes: Du Développement à L'Ajustement, Karthala, Paris, France, 1995.
[26]
C. Zanetta, The Influence of the World Bank on National Housing and Urban Policies,, Ashgate, Wiltshire, UK, 2004.
[27]
S. Narsiah, “Neoliberalism as spatial fix: an example from South Africa,” Geoforum, vol. 45, pp. 136–144, 2013.
[28]
A. Touraine, Production De La Société, Librairie Générale Fran？aise, Paris, France, 1993.
[29]
A. Touraine, Un Nouveau paradigme pour Comprendre le Monde D'Aujourd'hui, Fayard, Paris, France, 2005.
[30]
M. Ndongo, “L’influence des organisations de développement international sur la gouvernance des territoires locaux,” in Paper Presented at Colloque de L’Association de Science Régionale de Langue Fran？aise, Rimouski, Canada, August 2008.
[31]
D. Kapur, J. P. Lewis, and R. Webb, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, vol. 1 of Perspectives, Brooking Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
[32]
A. Isra？l, Le DéveLoppement Institutionnel: Les Organisations à L’épreuve De La Spécificité Et De La Concurrence, L’Harmattan, Paris, France, 1996.
[33]
K. Samset and T. Haavaldsen, “Uncertainty in development projects,” Revue Canadienne D’étuses Du Développement, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 382–401, 1999.
[34]
M. A. Cohen, Learning By Doing. World Bank Lending for Urban Development, 1972–1982, World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 1983.
[35]
P. Beaudet, J. Schafer, and P. A. Haslam, Introduction Au Développement International: Approches, Acteurs Et Enjeux, Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada, 2008.
[36]
A. Osmont and C. Goldblum, Villes Et Citadins Dans La Mondialisation, Karthala-Gemdev, Paris, France, 2003.
[37]
V. Renard, “Recherche urbaine et coopération avec les pays en développement. à la recherche d’un nouveau paradigme,” in Villes et Citadins dans La Mondialisation, A. Osmont and C. Goldblum, Eds., pp. 237–245, Karthala-Gemdev, Paris, France, 2003.
[38]
B. Gosovic, “L’hégémonie intellectuelle mondiale et développement,” Revue Internationale Des Sciences Sociales, vol. 166, pp. 507–518, 2000.
[39]
M. Bratton and D. Rothchild, “The institutional bases of governance in Africa,” in Governance and Politics in Africa, H. Goran and M. Bratton, Eds., pp. 263–284, Colorado and Lynne Reinner, Boulder, Colo, USA, 1992.
[40]
M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, “Toward governance in Africa: popular demands and state responses,” in Governance and Politics in Africa, H. Goran and M. Bratton, Eds., pp. 27–55, Colorado and Lynne Reinner, Boulder, Colo, USA, 1992.
[41]
I. Lindell, “The multiple sites of urban governance: insights from an African City,” Urban Studies, vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 1879–1901, 2008.
[42]
P. McCarney, M. Halfani, and A. Rodriguez, “Toward an understanding of governance,” in Urban Research in the Developing World, R. Stren and J. Kjeliberg Bell, Eds., vol. 4, pp. 91–141, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 1995.
[43]
M. A. Cohen, “Aid, density, and urban form: anticipating dakar,” Built Environment, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 145–156, 2007.
[44]
B. K. Campbell and J. Loxley, Structural Adjustment in Africa. Basingstoke, Macmillan, Houndmills, UK, 1989.
[45]
M. Gervais, “Les Enjeux politiques des ajustements structurels au Niger 1983–1990,” Revue Canadienne Des études Africaines, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 226–249, 1992.
[46]
J. Loxley, “A review of adjustment in Africa: reforms, results, and the road ahead,” Canadian Journal of African Studies, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 266–271, 1995.
[47]
M. A. Cohen and J. L. Leitmann, “Will the World Bank's real “new urban policy” please stand up?” Habitat International, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 117–126, 1994.
[48]
G. A. Jones and P. M. Ward, “The World Bank's “new” urban management programme: paradigm shift or policy continuity?” Habitat International, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 33–51, 1994.
[49]
E. A. Wegelin, “Everything you always wanted to know about the urban management programme (but were afraid to ask),” Habitat International, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 127–137, 1994.
[50]
A. Menéndez, “Access to basic infrastructure by the urban poor,” Economic Development Institute Policy Seminar Report 28, World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
[51]
S. Domicelj, “International assistance in the urban sector,” Habitat International, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 5–25, 1988.
[52]
B. Mbiba and M. Huchzermeyer, “Contentious development: peri-urban studies in sub-Saharan Africa,” Progress in Development Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 113–131, 2002.
[53]
J.-P. Olivier de Sardan, Anthropologie et Développement: Essai en Socio-Anthropologie du Changement Social, Karthala, Paris, France, 1995.
[54]
G. Roy, Improving the Lives of the Poor Through Investment in the Cities: An Update on The Performance of The World Bank’s Urban Portfolio, World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 2003.
[55]
D. Satterthwaite, “Reducing urban poverty: constraints on the effectiveness of aid agencies and development banks and some suggestions for change,” Environment and Urbanization, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 137–155, 2001.
[56]
P. Beaudet, “Le développement face aux enjeux de la mondialisation,” in Introduction Au Développement International: Approches, Acteurs Et Enjeux, P. Beaudet, J. Schafer, and P. A. Haslam, Eds., pp. 87–105, Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada, 2008.
[57]
P. Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, 2007.
[58]
D. Moyo, Dead Aid: why aid is not working and how there is a better way for Africa?Douglas and Mcintyre, Toronto, Canada, 2009.
[59]
M. Castells, The Power of Identity, Blackwell, Malden, Mass, USA, 1997.
[60]
J. -L. Klein, “L’espace local à l’heure de la globalisation: la part de la mobilisation sociale,” Cahiers De Géographie Du Québec, vol. 41, no. 114, pp. 367–377, 1997.
[61]
B. Miller, “Castells' the city and the grassroots: 1983 and today,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 207–211, 2006.
[62]
M. Minogue, C. Polidano, and D. Hulme, Beyond the New Public Management: Changing Ideas and Practices in Governance, E. Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, 1998.
[63]
P. J. Sheeran, Ethics in Public Administration: A Philosophical Approach, Praege, Westport, Conn, USA, 1993.
[64]
J. O'Flynn, “From new public management to public value: paradigmatic change and managerial implications,” Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 353–366, 2007.
[65]
G. Stoker, “Public value management: a new narrative for networked governance?” American Review of Public Administration, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 41–57, 2006.
[66]
M. Minogue, “The internationalization of new public management,” in The Internationalization of Public Management: Reinventing the Third World State, W. McCourt and M. Minogue, Eds., pp. 1–19, 2001.
[67]
W. Mendes, “Implementing social and environmental policies in cities: the case of food policy in Vancouver, Canada,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 942–967, 2008.
[68]
D. Harvey, Spaces of Global Capitalism: Toward a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development, Verso, New York, NY, USA, 2006.
[69]
M. I. Torrance, “Forging glocal governance? Urban infrastructures as networked financial products,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 1–21, 2008.
[70]
E. Swyngedouw, “Globalisation or “glocalisation”? Networks, territories and rescaling,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 25–48, 2004.
[71]
J. Duque and E. Pastrana, “La movilización reivindicativa urbana de los sectores populares en Chile,” in Santiago, Una Ciudad Neoliberal, A. Rodriguez and P. Rodriguez, Eds., pp. 53–69, Olachi, Quito, Ecuador, 2009.
[72]
C. N. Silva and S. Syrett, “Governing Lisbon: evolving forms of city governance,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 98–119, 2006.
[73]
N. Brenner, “Globalisation as reterritorialisation: the re-scaling of urban governance in the European union,” Urban Studies, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 431–451, 1999.
[74]
N. Brenner, “The urban question as a scale question: reflections on Henri Lefebvre, urban theory and the politics of scale,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 361–378, 2000.
[75]
E. Swyngedouw, “Reconstructing citizenship, the re-scaling of the state and the new authoritarianism: closing the Belgian mines,” Urban Studies, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1499–1521, 1996.
[76]
A. G. Bigio and B. Dahiya, Urban Environment and Infrastructure: Toward Livable Cities, World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
[77]
P. Edgar, “Untangling “integration” in urban development policy debates,” Urban Forum, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 1–35, 2004.
[78]
R. Tomlinson, “International best practice, enabling frameworks and the policy process: a South African case study,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 377–388, 2002.
[79]
B. H. Nordtveit, The role of civil society organizations in developing countries [Ph.D. dissertation], University of Maryland, Baltimore, Md, USA, 2005.
[80]
N. Woods and A. Narlikar, “La gestion des institutions internationales et les limites de l’obligation redditionnelle,” Revue Internationale Des Sciences Sociales, vol. 4, no. 170, pp. 627–643, 2001.
[81]
G. Arku and R. Harris, “Housing as a tool of economic development since 1929,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 895–915, 2005.
[82]
R. Keivani and M. Mattingly, “The interface of globalization and peripheral land in the cities of the south: implications for urban governance and local economic development,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 459–474, 2007.
[83]
M. Ottaway, “Rebuilding state institutions in collapsed states,” Development and Change, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 1001–1023, 2002.
[84]
M. Minogue, “Apples and oranges: comparing international experiences in regulatory reform,” in Regulatory Governance in Developing Countries, M. Minogue and L. Cari？o, Eds., pp. 61–81, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, 2006.
