Microencapsulation of antioxidant-rich fraction obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (at 50°C, 500 bar with extraction time of 90？min, and flow rate of CO2 at 2？L/min) of lyophilized biomass of Phormidium valderianum was carried out in a spray dryer using maltodextrin and gum arabic. Microencapsulation conditions that provided the best combination of phytochemical properties such as antioxidant activity, phenolic content, and reducing power with reasonable powder yield were an inlet temperature of 130°C and wall material composition as maltodextrin: gum arabic = 70？:？30. Toxicological study reported that the Anatoxin-a content of this encapsulated powder was below the limit of detection of HPLC. Storage study established that encapsulation of this antioxidant-rich algal extract resulted in eight times enhancement of half-life ( ) values. The release profile of microencapsulated antioxidant-rich fraction from the encapsulated powder was found to follow first order anomalous transport kinetics. Therefore, this microencapsulated algal extract with minimum toxicity is a source of natural antioxidant and could have promising use as novel dietary supplement. 1. Introduction Microalga species are one of the important natural sources of antioxidants, owing to high amount of bioactive components such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, β-carotene [1–4], sulphated polysaccharides (anti-virals), and sterols (antimicrobials) [5, 6]. Among the various microalgal species, Botryococcus sp. [7], Chlorella sp. [8, 9], Dunaliella sp. [10], Nostoc sp. [11], Phaeodactylum sp. [12], Spirulina sp. [13, 14], Haematococcus sp. [15], Chaetoceros sp. [9], Porphyridium sp. [16], and Galdieria sp. [17] are reported to be sources of antioxidants. One of the lesser studied sources of microalgal antioxidants with lower cellular toxicity is Phormidium species where pressurized fluid extraction using hexane, ethanol, and water have been applied to obtain antioxidant-rich fractions [18]. Although these extraction procedures are efficient, green, and environmentally safe for extraction of bioactive ingredients, the major problem is associated with usage of toxic organic solvents such as hexane which poses environment and health hazards [13, 19]. For these reasons, the extracts obtained by the above procedures are not suitable for food and pharmaceutical applications. Alternatively green technology of supercritical fluid (SCF) extraction using GRAS status CO2 as extracting solvent could be employed for obtaining antioxidant-rich extract from algae. In our previous
References
[1]
Z. Cohen and A. Vonshak, “Fatty acid composition of Spirulina and spirulina-like cyanobacteria in relation to their chemotaxonomy,” Phytochemistry, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 205–206, 1991.
[2]
G. Mahajan and M. Kamat, “γ-Linolenic acid production from Spirulina platensis,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 466–469, 1995.
[3]
V. B. Bhat and K. M. Madyastha, “C-Phycocyanin: a potent peroxyl radical scavenger in vivo and in vitro,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 275, no. 1, pp. 20–25, 2000.
[4]
C. M. Reddy, V. B. Bhat, G. Kiranmai, M. N. Reddy, P. Reddanna, and K. M. Madyastha, “Selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 by C-phycocyanin, a biliprotein from Spirulina platensis,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 277, no. 3, pp. 599–603, 2000.
[5]
S. ？tle？ and R. Pire, “Fatty acid composition of Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae species,” Journal of AOAC International, vol. 84, no. 6, pp. 1708–1714, 2001.
[6]
C. Xue, Y. Hu, H. Saito et al., “Molecular species composition of glycolipids from Sprirulina platensis,” Food Chemistry, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 9–13, 2002.
[7]
A. R. Rao, R. Sarada, V. Baskaran, and G. A. Ravishankar, “Antioxidant activity of Botryococcus braunii extract elucidated in vitro models,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 54, no. 13, pp. 4593–4599, 2006.
[8]
L. C. Wu, J. A. Ho, M. C. Shieh, and I. W. Lu, “Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of Spirulina and Chlorella water extracts,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 53, no. 10, pp. 4207–4212, 2005.
[9]
S. H. Goh, F. M. Yusoff, and S. P. Loh, “A comparison of the antioxidant properties and total phenolic content in a diatom, Chaetoceros sp. and a green microalga, Nannochloropsis sp,” Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 2, pp. 123–130, 2010.
[10]
M. Herrero, L. Jaime, P. J. Martín-Alvarez, A. Cifuentes, and E. Ibá？ez, “Optimization of the extraction of antioxidants from Dunaliella salina microalga by pressurized liquids,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 54, pp. 5597–5603, 2006.
[11]
H. Li, K. Cheng, C. Wong, K. Fan, F. Chen, and Y. Jiang, “Evaluation of antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content of different fractions of selected microalgae,” Food Chemistry, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 771–776, 2007.
[12]
S. Guzmán, A. Gato, and J. M. Calleja, “Antiinflammatory, analgesic and free radical scavenging activities of the marine microalgae Chlorella stigmatophora and Phaeodactylum tricornutum,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 224–230, 2001.
[13]
L. Wang, B. Pan, J. Sheng, J. Xu, and Q. Hu, “Antioxidant activity of Spirulina platensis extracts by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction,” Food Chemistry, vol. 105, no. 1, pp. 36–41, 2007.
[14]
J. A. Mendiola, L. Jaime, S. Santoyo et al., “Screening of functional compounds in supercritical fluid extracts from Spirulina platensis,” Food Chemistry, vol. 102, no. 4, pp. 1357–1367, 2007.
[15]
M. C. Cerón, M. C. García-Malea, J. Rivas et al., “Antioxidant activity of Haematococcus pluvialis cells grown in continuous culture as a function of their carotenoid and fatty acid content,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 1112–1119, 2007.
[16]
T. Tannin-Spitz, M. Bergman, D. Van-Moppes, S. Grossman, and S. Arad, “Antioxidant activity of the polysaccharide of the red microalga Porphyridium sp.,” Journal of Applied Phycology, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 215–222, 2005.
[17]
G. Graziani, S. Schiavo, M. A. Nicolai et al., “Microalgae as human food: chemical and nutritional characteristics of the thermo-acidophilic microalga Galdieria sulphuraria,” Food and Function, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 144–152, 2013.
[18]
I. Rodríguez-Meizoso, L. Jaime, S. Santoyo et al., “Pressurized fluid extraction of bioactive compounds from Phormidium species,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 56, no. 10, pp. 3517–3523, 2008.
[19]
W. Guan, S. Li, R. Yan, S. Tang, and C. Quan, “Comparison of essential oils of clove buds extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide and other three traditional extraction methods,” Food Chemistry, vol. 101, no. 4, pp. 1558–1564, 2007.
[20]
D. Chatterjee and P. Bhattacharjee, “Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of antioxidant rich fraction from Phormidium valderianum: optimization of experimental process parameters,” Algal Research, vol. 3, pp. 49–54, 2014.
[21]
M. Betz, B. Steiner, M. Schantz et al., “Antioxidant capacity of bilberry extract microencapsulated in whey protein hydrogels,” Food Research International, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 51–57, 2012.
[22]
C. G. da Rosa, C. D. Borges, R. C. Zambiazi et al., “Microencapsulation of gallic acid in chitosan, -cyclodextrin and xanthan,” Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 46, pp. 138–146, 2013.
[23]
L. Han, L. Bi, Z. Zhao, and Y. Xing, “Microencapsulation exploration of squalene by ultrasonic spraying and freeze-drying,” Advanced Materials Research, vol. 554–556, pp. 1835–1840, 2012.
[24]
M. Pitchaon, W. Tanawan, and H. Thepkunya, “Tamarind kernel powder, gum arabic and maltodextrin as a novel combination for encapsulating agents of phenolic antioxidants,” International Food Research Journal, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 645–652, 2013.
[25]
S. Rocha, R. Generalov, M. D. C. Pereira, I. Peres, P. Juzenas, and M. A. N. Coelho, “Epigallocatechin gallate-loaded polysaccharide nanoparticles for prostate cancer chemoprevention,” Nanomedicine, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 79–87, 2011.
[26]
D. Chatterjee and P. Bhattacharjee, “Comparative evaluation of the antioxidant efficacy of encapsulated and un-encapsulated eugenol-rich clove extracts in soybean oil: shelf-life and frying stability of soybean oil,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 117, no. 4, pp. 545–550, 2013.
[27]
S. Palanisami, D. Prabaharan, and L. Uma, “Fate of few pesticide-metabolizing enzymes in the marine cyanobacterium Phormidium valderianum BDU 20041 in perspective with chlorpyrifos exposure,” Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, vol. 94, no. 2-3, pp. 68–72, 2009.
[28]
O. A. Aiyegoro and A. I. Okoh, “Preliminary phytochemical screening and in vitro antioxidant activities of the aqueous extract of Helichrysum longifolium DC,” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 10, article 21, 2010.
[29]
G. A. Spanos and R. E. Wrolstad, “Influence of processing and storage on the phenolic composition of thompson seedless grape juice,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 1565–1571, 1990.
[30]
M. Oyaizu, “Antioxidative activities of browning products of glucosamine fractionated by organic solvent and thin-layer chromatography,” Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi, vol. 35, pp. 771–775, 1986.
[31]
M. Gugger, S. Lenoir, C. Berger et al., “First report in a river in France of the benthic cyanobacterium Phormidium favosum producing anatoxin-a associated with dog neurotoxicosis,” Toxicon, vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 919–928, 2005.
[32]
P. Robert, T. Gorena, N. Romero, E. Sepulveda, J. Chavez, and C. Saenz, “Encapsulation of polyphenols and anthocyanins from pomegranate (Punica granatum) by spray drying,” International Journal of Food Science & Technology, vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 1386–1394, 2010.
[33]
M. G. Ahmed, K. B. P. Satish, and K. G. B. Kiran, “Formulation and evaluation of gastric-mucoadhesive drug delivery systems of captopril,” Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 26–32, 2010.
[34]
D. Chatterjee, N. T. Jadhav, and P. Bhattacharjee, “Solvent and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of color from eggplants: characterization and food applications,” LWT—Food Science and Technology, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 319–324, 2013.
[35]
E. Sadilova, F. C. Stintzing, and R. Carle, “Thermal degradation of acylated and nonacylated anthocyanins,” Journal of Food Science, vol. 71, no. 8, pp. C504–C512, 2006.
[36]
S. Song, Z. Wang, Y. Qian, L. Zhang, and E. Luo, “The release rate of curcumin from calcium alginate beads regulated by food emulsifiers,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 60, no. 17, pp. 4388–4395, 2012.
[37]
M. Maury, K. Murphy, S. Kumar, L. Shi, and G. Lee, “Effects of process variables on the powder yield of spray-dried trehalose on a laboratory spray-dryer,” European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 565–573, 2005.
[38]
M. I. Amaro, L. Tajber, O. I. Corrigan, and A. M. Healy, “Optimisation of spray drying process conditions for sugar nanoporous microparticles (NPMPs) intended for inhalation,” International Journal of Pharmaceutics, vol. 421, no. 1, pp. 99–109, 2011.
[39]
D. F. K. Rawn, B. Niedzwiadek, B. P. Lau, and M. Saker, “Anatoxin-a and its metabolites in blue-green algae food supplements from Canada and Portugal,” Journal of Food Protection, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 776–779, 2007.
[40]
S. Rellán, J. Osswald, M. Saker, A. Gago-Martinez, and V. Vasconcelos, “First detection of anatoxin-a in human and animal dietary supplements containing cyanobacteria,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 2189–2195, 2009.
[41]
W. M. Zeng, “Oral controlled release formulation for highly water-soluble drugs: drug-sodium alginate-xanthan gum-zinc acetate matrix,” Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 491–495, 2004.
