The aim of this research is to focus on the deterioration appearances of Pine wood “Pinus sp.” that has been widely used as an external architectural element in Egypt. The wooden lintels in this research were exposed to the influence of weathering factors which are varying in their amounts. This variation in the amounts was reflected in the appearance of the surface, at the anatomical structure of the pine wood, and at the changes in the main components of wood. To clarify all these changes, a comparison was made between wooden lintels exposed to two kinds of environments. Some very small samples from these environments had been chosen and examined by using the digital microscope and the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) which clarify the surface and anatomical changes of deteriorated wood. The Fourier transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was used also to show the extent of changes in the main wood components. The results showed a clear difference in the surface, anatomical and chemical changes in the wood at these two different environments. In the first environment with high moisture levels, the wood was damaged more than in the other environment with high-temperature levels.
References
[1]
Ali, M. (2019). The Deterioration of Domestic Wooden Surfaces of Historical Buildings in Upper Egypt (pp. 3-24). Athens: ATINER’S Conference Paper Series, No. ART2019-2697.
[2]
Andriulo, F. et al. (2016). Nanotechnologies for the Restoration of Alum-Treated Archaeological Wood. Applied Physics A, 122, 322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-016-9833-0
[3]
Bodirlau, R., & Teaca, C. A. (2009). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Thermal Analysis of Lignocellulose Fillers Treated with Organic Anhydrides. Romanian Journal of Physics, 54, 93-104.
[4]
Colom, X. et al. (2003). Structural Analysis of Photodegraded Wood by Means of FTIR Spectroscopy. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 80, 543-549. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(03)00051-X
[5]
Darwish, S. et al. (2013). The Effect of Fungal Decay on Ficus Sycomorus Wood. International Journal of Conservation Science, 4, 271-282.
[6]
El Hadidi, N. (2017). Decay of Softwood in Archaeological Wooden Artifacts. Studies in Conservation, 62, 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047058415Y.0000000028
[7]
El Hadidi, N., & Darwish, S. (2014). Preliminary Study on the Different Effects of Consolidation Treatments in Heartwood and Sapwood of a Decayed Gymnosperm Wood. Egyptian Journal of Archaeological and Restoration Studies, 4, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejars.2018.7269
[8]
El-Hadidi, N., & Darwish, S. (2008). The Use of Acids and Alkalis in Cleaning Archaeological Wood. International Conference on Giza through the Ages, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo, 4-6 March 2008.
[9]
Evans, P. A. (1991). Differentiating “Hard” from “Soft” Woods Using Fourier Transform Infrared and Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy. Spectrochim Acta A, 47, 1441-1447. https://doi.org/10.1016/0584-8539(91)80235-B
[10]
Feist, W. C. (1983). Weathering and Protection of Wood. Proceedings, Seventy-Ninth Annual Meeting of the American Wood-Preservers’ Association, Vol. 79, 195-205.
[11]
Feist, W. C. (1990). Outdoor Wood Weathering and Protection. In Archaeological Wood: Properties, Chemistry and Preservation (pp. 263-298). Washington DC: American Chemical Society. https://doi.org/10.1021/ba-1990-0225.ch011
[12]
Fors, Y., & Richards, V. (2010). The Effects of the Ammonia Neutralizing Treatment on Marine Archaeological Vasa Wood. Studies in Conservation, 55, 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.2010.55.1.41
[13]
Genestar, C., & Palou, J. (2006). SEM-FTIR Spectroscopic Evaluation of Deterioration in an Historic Coffered Ceiling. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 384, 987-993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-005-0243-y
[14]
Gonultas, O., & Candan, Z. (2018). Chemical Characterization and FTIR Spectroscopy of Thermally Compressed Eucalyptus Wood Panels. Maderas: Ciencia y Tecnologia, 20, 431-442. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-221X2018005031301
[15]
Hamed, S. A. M. (2014). Investigation of Deterioration in Archaeological Wood Used in Architectural Elements: Microscopic Study. In A. Méndez-Vilas (Ed.), Microscopy: Advances in Scientific Research and Education (Vol. 2, pp. 857-862). Badajoz: Formatex Research Center.
[16]
Hamed, S. A. M. et al. (2020). Investigating the Impact of Weathering and In-door Aging on Wood Acidity Using Spectroscopic Analyses. BioResources, 15, 6506-6525.
[17]
Han, L. et al. (2020). Even Visually Intact Cell Walls in Waterlogged Archaeological Wood Are Chemically Deteriorated and Mechanically Fragile: A Case of a 170 Year-Old Shipwreck. Molecules, 25, 1113. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25051113
[18]
Henriques, D. F., & Azevedo, A. C. B. (2018). Outdoor Wood Weathering and Protection. Construction Pathology, Rehabilitation Technology and Heritage Management, Caceres, 15-18 May 2018, 2007-2015.
[19]
Huang, Y. et al. (2012). Analysis of Lignin Aromatic Structure in Wood Based on the IR Spectrum. Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology, 32, 294-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/02773813.2012.666316
[20]
Iruela, A. G. (2020). Effect of Degradation on Wood Hygroscopicity: The Case of a 400-Year-Old Coffin. Forests, 11, 712. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11070712
[21]
Jahan, M. S., & Mun, S. P. (2006). Characteristics of Milled Wood Lignins Isolated from Different Ages of Nalita Wood (Trema orientalis). Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 40, 457-467.
[22]
Jankowska, A. (2015). The Study of Influence Artificial Weathering on Color Changes of Selected Wood Species from Africa. Forestry and Wood Technology, 92, 131-136.
[23]
Kubovsky, I. et al. (2020). Structural Changes of Oak Wood Main Components Caused by Thermal Modification. Polymers, 12, 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020485
[24]
Lionetto, F. et al. (2012). Monitoring Wood Degradation during Weathering by Cellulose Crystallinity. Materials, 5, 1910-1922. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma5101910
[25]
Oberhofnerová, E. et al. (2017). The Effect of Natural Weathering on Untreated Wood Surface. Maderas. Ciencia y Tecnología, 19, 173-184.
[26]
Özgenç, Ö. et al. (2018). ATR-FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis of Thermally Modified Wood Degraded by Rot Fungi. Drewno, 61, 91-105.
[27]
Pandey, K. K. (1999). A Study of Chemical Structure of Soft and Hardwood and Wood Polymers by FTIR Spectroscopy. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 71, 1969-1975. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19990321)71:12<1969::AID-APP6>3.0.CO;2-D
[28]
Pandey, K. K., & Pitman, A. J. (2003). FTIR Studies of the Changes in Wood Chemistry Following Decay by Brown-Rot and White-Rot Fungi. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 52, 151-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0964-8305(03)00052-0
[29]
Poletto, M. et al. (2012). Structural Differences between Wood Species: Evidence from Chemical Composition, FTIR Spectroscopy, and Thermogravimetric Analysis. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 126, E336-E343. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.36991
[30]
Popescu, C. et al. (2011a). Structural Analysis of Photodegraded Lime Wood by Means of FT-IR and 2D IR Correlation Spectroscopy. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 48, 667-675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.02.009
[31]
Popescu, C. M. et al. (2006). Analytical Methods for Lignin Characterization. II. Spectroscopic Studies. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 40, 597-621.
[32]
Popescu, M. et al. (2011b). Evaluation of Morphological and Chemical Aspects of Different Wood Species by Spectroscopy and Thermal Methods. Journal of Molecular Structure, 988, 65-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2010.12.004
[33]
Reinprecht, L. et al. (2018). The Impact of Natural and Artificial Weathering on the Visual, Colour and Structural Changes of Seven Tropical Woods. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 76, 175-190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-017-1228-1
[34]
Sandberg, D. (1999). Weathering of Radial and Tangential Wood Surfaces of Pine and Spruce. Holzforschung, 53, 355-364. https://doi.org/10.1515/HF.1999.059
[35]
Shi, J. et al. (2012). FTIR Studies of the Changes in Wood Chemistry from Wood Forming Tissue under Inclined Treatment. Energy Procedia, 16, 758-762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2012.01.122
[36]
Teles, C. D. M., & Valle, Â. (2001). Wood Structures: Acting before Deterioration. In P. B. Lourenço, & P. Roca (Eds.), Historical Constructions (pp. 857-866). Guimarães: University of Minho.
[37]
Traoré, M. et al. (2018). Differentiation between Pine Woods According to Species and Growing Location Using FTIR-ATR. Wood Science and Technology, 52, 487-504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-017-0967-9
[38]
Unger, A. et al. (2001). Conservation of Wood Artifacts (p. 48). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlagberin.
[39]
Wiemann, M. C. (2010). Characteristics and Availability of Commercially Important Woods. In Wood Handbook—Wood as an Engineering Material, Centennial Edition (p. 1). Madison, WI: Forest Products Laboratory.
[40]
William, C. F. (1983). Weathering and Protection of Wood. Proceedings, Seventy-Ninth Annual Meeting of the American Wood-Preservers’ Association, Kansas City, 17-20 April, 195-205.
[41]
Williams, R. S. (2005). Weathering of Wood. In Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites (p. 167). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
[42]
Xing, D. et al. (2015). Effect of Artificial Weathering on the Properties of Industrial-Scale Thermally Modified Wood. BioResources, 10, 8238-8252. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.8238-8252
[43]
Yildiz, S. et al. (2018). The Effects of Natural Weathering on the Properties of Heat-Treated Alder Wood. BioResources, 6, 2504-2521.
[44]
Yilgor, N. et al. (2013). Evaluation of Fungal Deterioration in Liquidambar orientalis Mill. Heartwood by FT-IR and Light Microscopy. BioResources, 8, 2805-2826. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.8.2.2805-2826
[45]
Zhang, J. et al. (2009). Weathering of Copper-Amine Treated Wood. Applied Surface Science, 256, 842-846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2009.08.071
[46]
Zhou, Y. et al. (2018). Degradation Features of Archaeological Wood Surface to Deep Inside a Case Study on Wooden Boards of Marquis of Haihun’s Outer Coffin. Wood Research, 63, 419-430.
