The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of eating disorders and self-disorders (self-esteem, selflessness, self-efficacy, self-concept clarity, and self-compassion) on women’s behavior in Kuwait. This study used a quantitative approach based on a survey questionnaire by the online survey has been used as the main technique for data collection. The survey was sent to a group of 500 women in Kuwait. The survey was administrated through an online survey tool. 212 women completed the full questionnaire, resulting in a response rate of 42.2 percent. The results indicated that eating disorders have a direct effect on women’s behavior in Kuwait. Moreover, self-disorders (self-esteem, selflessness, self-efficacy, self-concept clarity, and self-compassion) have a direct effect on women’s behavior in Kuwait.
References
[1]
Stice, E. (2001) A Prospective Test of the Dual-Pathway Model of Bulimic Pathology: Mediating Effects of Dieting and Negative Affect. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 124-135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.124
[2]
Shroff, H. and Thompson, J.K. (2006) The Tripartite Influence Model of Body Image and Eating Disturbance: A Replication with Adolescent Girls. Body Image, 3, 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.10.004
[3]
Fairburn, C.G., Cooper, Z. and Shafran, R. (2003) Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Eating Disorders: A “Transdiagnostic” Theory and Treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 509-528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00088-8
[4]
Heatherton, T.F. and Baumeister, R.F. (1991) Binge Eating as Escape from Self-Awareness. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 86-108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.86
[5]
Fairburn, C.G. and Walsh, B.T. (1995) Atypical Eating Disorders. In: Brownell, K.D. and Fairburn, C.G., Eds., Eating Disorders and Obesity, a Comprehensive Handbook, The Guilford Press, New York, 135-140.
[6]
Hudson, J.I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H.G. and Kessler, R.C. (2007) The Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 348-358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.040
[7]
Swanson, S.A., Crow, S.J., Le Grange, D., Swendsen, J. and Merikangas, K.R. (2011) Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in Adolescents. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 714-723. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.22
[8]
Hoek, H.W. (2007) Incidence, Prevalence and Mortality of Anorexia and Other Eating Disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 19, 389-394. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.yco.0000228759.95237.78
[9]
Striegel-Moore, R.H. and Cachelin, F.M. (2001) Etiology of Eating Disorders in Women. The Counseling Psychologist, 29, 635-661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000001295002
[10]
Cummins, L.H. and Lehman, J. (2007) Eating Disorders and Body Image Concerns in Asian American Women: Assessment and Treatment from a Multi-Cultural and Feminist Perspective. Eating Disorders, 15, 217-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640260701323474
[11]
Field, A.E., Javaras, K.M., Aneja, P., Kitos, N., Camargo, C.A., Taylor, C.B., et al. (2008) Family, Peer, and Media Predictors of Becoming Eating Disordered. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 162, 574-579. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.162.6.574
[12]
Dittmar, H. and Howard, S. (2004) Tin-Ideal Internalization and Social Comparison Tendency as Moderator of Media Models Impact on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 768-791. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.6.768.54799
[13]
Lee, S., Ng, K.L., Kwok, K. and Fung, C. (2010) The Changing Profile of Eating Disorders at a Tertiary Psychiatric Clinic in Hong Kong (1987-2007). International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 307-314. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20686
[14]
Gan, W.Y., Nasir, M.M., Zalilah, M.S. and Hazizi, A.S. (2011) Disordered Eating Behaviors, Depression, Anxiety and Stress among Malaysian University Students. College Student Journal, 45, 296-310.
[15]
Qian, J., Hu, Q., Wan, Y., Li, T., Wu, M., Ren, Z. and Yu, D. (2013) Prevalence of Eating Disorders in the General Population: A Systematic Review. Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry, 25, 212.
[16]
Xu, X., Mellor, D., Kiehne, M., Ricciardelli, L.A., McCabe, M.P. and Xu, Y. (2010) Body Dissatisfaction, Engagement in Body Change Behaviors and Sociocultural Influences on Body Image among Chinese Adolescents. Body Image, 7, 156-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.11.003
[17]
Lai, C.M., Mak, K.K., Pang, J.S., Fong, S.S., Ho, R.C. and Guldan, G.S. (2013) The Associations of Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance with Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Behaviors in Hong Kong Adolescents. Eating Behaviors, 14, 320-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.05.004
[18]
Mond, J.M., Chen, A. and Kumar, R. (2010) Eating-Disordered Behavior in Australian and Singaporean Women: A Comparative Study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 717-723. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20771
[19]
Karahmadi, M., Layegh, E., Layegh, S. and Keypour, M. (2011) High Level Increase in Liver Enzymes and Severe Thrombocytopenia in a Male Case of Anorexia Nervosa. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 16, 1378-1381.
[20]
Touyz, S. and Hay, P.J. (2013) A New Era of Open Access Publishing in Eating Disorders. Journal of Eating Disorders, 1, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1186/2050-2974-1-1
[21]
Okasha, A., Kamel, M., Sadek, A., Lotaif, F. and Bishry, Z. (1977) Psychiatric Morbidity among University Students in Egypt. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 149-154. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.131.2.149
[22]
Zaman, H.M.F., Hayat, Q. and Munir, M.H. (2011) Do Media Develop Eating Disorders: A Study with Reference to Young Females of Pakistan. European Journal of Scientific Research, 57, 29-46.
[23]
Akdevelioglu, Y. and Gümüs, H. (2010) Eating Disorders and Body Image Perception among University Students. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 9, 1187-1191. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2010.1187.1191
[24]
Fawzi, M.M., Hashim, H.M., Fouad, A.A. and Abdel-Fattah, N.R. (2010) Prevalence of Eating Disorders in a Sample of Rural and Urban Secondary School-Girls in Sharkia, Egypt. Current Psychiatry, 17, 1-12.
[25]
Musaiger, A.O. and Al-Mannai, M. (2014) Association between Exposure to Media and Body Weight Concern among Female University Students in Five Arab Countries: A Preliminary Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of Biosocial Science, 46, 240-247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932013000278
[26]
Schulte, S.J. and Thomas, J. (2013) Relationship between Eating Pathology, Body Dissatisfaction and Depressive Symptoms among Male and Female Adolescents in the United Arab Emirates. Eating Behaviors, 14, 157-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.01.015
[27]
Al-Adawi, S., Jaju, S., Al-Zakwani, I. and Dorvlo, A.S. (2011) Culture to Culture: Fat-Phobia and Somatization. In: Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition, Springer, New York, 1457-1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-92271-3_94
[28]
Tamim, H., Dumit, N., Terro, A., Al-Hourany, R., Sinno, D., Seif, F., Musharrafieh, U., et al. (2004) Weight Control Measures among University Students in a Developing Country: A Cultural Association or a Risk Behavior. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 23, 391-396. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2004.10719383
[29]
Katsounari, I. and Zeeni, N. (2012) Preoccupation with Weight and Eating Patterns of Lebanese and Cypriot Female Students. Psychology, 3, 507-512. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2012.36073
[30]
Kabir, Y., Zafar, T.A. and Waslien, C. (2013) Relationship between Perceived Body Image and Recorded Body Mass Index among Kuwaiti Female University Students. Women and Health, 53, 693-705. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2013.831017
[31]
Garrusi, B. and Baneshi, M.R. (2013) Eating Disorders and Their Associated Risk Factors among Iranian Population: A Community Based Study. Global Journal of Health Science, 5, 193-202. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v5n1p193
[32]
Mousa, T.Y., Al-Domi, H.A., Mashal, R.H. and Jibril, M.A.K. (2010) Eating Disturbances among Adolescent Schoolgirls in Jordan. Appetite, 54, 196-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2009.10.008
[33]
Jacobi, C., Paul, T., de Zwaan, M., Nutzinger, D.O. and Dahme, B. (2004) Specificity of Self-Concept Disturbances in Eating Disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 204-210. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10240
[34]
Karpowicz, E., Skärsäter, I. and Nevonen, L. (2009) Self-Esteem in Patients Treated for Anorexia Nervosa. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 18, 318-325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0349.2009.00621.x
[35]
Bachar, E., Gur, E., Canetti, L., Berry, E. and Stein, D. (2010) Selflessness and Perfectionism as Predictors of Pathological Eating Attitudes and Disorders: A Longitudinal Study. European Eating Disorders Review, 18, 496-506. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.984
[36]
Melman, R., Zohar, A.H., Ebstein, R.P. and Bachar, E. (2007) The Relationship between Selflessness Levels and the Severity of Anorexia Nervosa Symptomatology. European Eating Disorders Review, 15, 213-220. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.740
[37]
Levy, G., Canetti, L., Galili-Weisstub, E., Milun, M., Gur, E. and Bachar, E. (2012) Selflessness in Anorexia Nervosa as Reflected in the Rorschach Comprehensive System. Rorschachiana, 33, 78-93. https://doi.org/10.1027/1192-5604/a000028
[38]
Geller, J., Cockell, S.J., Goldner, E.M. and Flett, G.L. (2000) Inhibited Expression of Negative Emotions and Interpersonal Orientation in Anorexia Nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorder, 28, 8-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(200007)28:1<8::AID-EAT2>3.0.CO;2-U
[39]
Keel, P.K. and Brown, T.A. (2010) Update on Course and Outcome in Eating Disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 195-204. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20810
[40]
Bandura, A. (1977) Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychology Review, 84, 191-215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
[41]
Clausen, L., Rokkedal, K. and Rosenvinge, J.H. (2009) Validating the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2) in Two Danish Samples: A Comparison between Female Eating Disorder Patients and Females from the General Population. European Eating Disorders Review, 17, 462-467. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.945
[42]
Lilenfeld, L.R., Wonderlich, S., Riso, L.P., Crosby, R. and Mitchell, J. (2006) Eating Disorders and Personality: A Methodological and Empirical Review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 299-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.10.003
[43]
Glasofer, D.R., Haaga, D.A.F., Hannallah, L., Field, S.E., Kozlosky, M., Reynolds, J., Tanofsky-Kraff, M., et al. (2013) Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Eating Behavior in Adolescent Girls at Risk for Excess Weight Gain and Binge Eating Disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46, 663-668. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22160
[44]
Berman, E.S. (2006) The Relationship between Eating Self-Efficacy and Eating Disorder Symptoms in a Non-Clinical Sample. Eating Behaviors, 7, 79-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.07.004
[45]
Pinto, A.M., Heinberg, L.J., Coughlin, J.W., Fava, J.L. and Guarda, A.S. (2008) The Eating Disorder Recovery Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (EDRSQ): Change with Treatment and Prediction of Outcome. Eating Behaviors, 9, 143-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.07.001
[46]
Campbell, J.D., Trapnell, P.D., Heine, S.J., Katz, I.M., Lavallee, L.F. and Lehman, D.R. (1996) Self-Concept Clarity: Measurement, Personality Correlates, and Cultural Boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141-156. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.1.141
[47]
Vartanian, L.R. (2009) When the Body Defines the Self: Self-Concept Clarity, Internalization, and Body Image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 94-126. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.94
[48]
Vartanian, L.R. and Dey, S. (2013) Self-Concept Clarity, Thin-Ideal Internalization, and Appearance-Related Social Comparison as Predictors of Body Dissatisfaction. Body Image, 10, 495-500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.05.004
[49]
Vartanian, L.R., Froreich, F.V. and Smyth, J.M. (2016) A Serial Mediation Model Testing Early Adversity, Self-Concept Clarity, and Thin-Ideal Internalization as Predictors of Body Dissatisfaction. Body Image, 19, 98-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.013
[50]
Neff, K.D. (2003) Self-Compassion: An Alternative Conceptualization of a Healthy Attitude toward Oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
[51]
Ferreira, C., Matos, M., Duarte, C. and Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2014) Shame Memories and Eating Psychopathology: The Buffering Effect of Self-Compassion. European Eating Disorders Review, 22, 487-494. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2322
[52]
Kelly, A.C. and Carter, J.C. (2013) Why Self-Critical Patients Present with More Severe Eating Disorder Pathology: The Mediating Role of Shame. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52, 148-161. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12006
[53]
Kelly, A.C., Carter, J.C. and Borairi, S. (2014) Are Improvements in Shame and Self-Compassion Early in Eating Disorders Treatment Associated with Better Patient Outcomes? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47, 54-64. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22196
[54]
Kelly, A.C., Carter, J.C., Zuroff, D.C. and Borairi, S. (2013) Self-Compassion and Fear of Self-Compassion Interact to Predict Response to Eating Disorders Treatment: A Preliminary Investigation. Psychotherapy Research, 23, 252-264. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.717310
[55]
Kelly, A.C., Vimalakanthan, K. and Carter, J.C. (2014) Understanding the Roles of Self-Esteem, Self-Compassion, and Fear of Self-Compassion in Eating Disorder Pathology: An Examination of Female Students and Eating Disorder Patients. Eating Behaviors, 15, 388-391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.04.008
